TiO2 particles in seafood and surimi products: Attention should be paid to their exposure and uptake through foods

The distribution, fate, and environmental impacts of food additive nanomaterials in soil and aquatic ecosystems

Nanomaterials in the food industry are used as food additives, and the main function of these food additives is to improve food qualities including texture, flavor, color, consistency, preservation, and nutrient bioavailability. This review aims to provide an overview of the distribution, fate, and environmental and health impacts of food additive nanomaterials in soil and aquatic ecosystems. Some of the major nanomaterials in food additives include titanium dioxide, silver, gold, silicon dioxide, iron oxide, and zinc oxide. Ingestion of food products containing food additive nanomaterials via dietary intake is considered to be one of the major pathways of human exposure to nanomaterials. Food additive nanomaterials reach the terrestrial and aquatic environments directly through the disposal of food wastes in landfills and the application of food waste-derived soil amendments. A significant amount of ingested food additive nanomaterials (> 90 %) is excreted, and these nanomaterials are not efficiently removed in the wastewater system, thereby reaching the environment indirectly through the disposal of recycled water and sewage sludge in agricultural land. Food additive nanomaterials undergo various transformation and reaction processes, such as adsorption, aggregation-sedimentation, desorption, degradation, dissolution, and bio-mediated reactions in the environment. These processes significantly impact the transport and bioavailability of nanomaterials as well as their behaviour and fate in the environment. These nanomaterials are toxic to soil and aquatic organisms, and reach the food chain through plant uptake and animal transfer. The environmental and health risks of food additive nanomaterials can be overcome by eliminating their emission through recycled water and sewage sludge.

Recent advances in the use of composite titanium dioxide nanomaterials in the food industry

Titanium dioxide (TiO2 ) nanomaterials have attracted significant attention due to their good biocompatibility and potential for multifunctional applications. In the last few years, there has been growing interest in the use of TiO2 nanomaterials in the food industry. However, a systematic review of the synthesis methods, properties, and applications of TiO2 nanomaterials in the food industry is lacking. In this review, we provide a summary of the synthesis and properties of TiO2 nanomaterials and their composites, with a focus on their applications in the food industry. We also discuss the potential benefits and risks of using TiO2 nanomaterials in food applications. This review aims to promote food innovation and improve food quality and safety.

Stool titanium dioxide is positively associated with stool alpha-1 antitrypsin and calprotectin in young healthy adults

Titanium dioxide (TiO2/E171) is used widely in foods, primarily as a food additive. Animal models have shown that chronic TiO2 exposure may disturb homeostasis of the gastrointestinal tract by increasing gut permeability, inducing gut inflammation, and increasing the likelihood of microbial infection. Adults have a wide range of ingested TiO2,which span two to three orders of magnitude, with a small portion of individuals consuming near gram quantities of TiO2/day. However, research on the health effects of chronic ingestion of TiO2/E171 in humans is limited. We hypothesized that regularly ingested TiO2/E171 is associated with increased gut inflammation and gut permeability in healthy adults. We tested this hypothesis in a cross-sectional design by measuring clinically established stool markers of gut inflammation (calprotectin, lactoferrin) and gut permeability (alpha-1 antitrypsin; A1AT) in 35 healthy adults, and comparing these markers between relatively high and low TiO2 exposure groups. Participants were stratified by TiO2 stool content (high dry stool TiO2 content: 0.95-9.92 μg/mg, n = 20; low content: 0.01-0.04 μg/mg; n = 15). Differences in gut health markers were tested between high and low exposure groups by independent samples t-test or Mann-Whitney U test. Multivariable linear regression was used to assess the association between TiO2 in dry stool and measured stool alpha-1 antitrypsin (A1AT). Participants in the high stool TiO2 group had greater stool A1AT (42.7 ± 21.6 mg/dL; median: 38.3; range: 1.0-49.2 mg/dL), compared to the low TiO2 group (22.8 ± 13.6 mg/dL; median: 20.9; range: 8.7-93.0 mg/dL), P = 0.003. There was also greater stool calprotectin in the high TiO2 group (51.4 ± 48.6 μg/g; median 29.2 μg/g; range: 15.3-199.0 μg/g) than in the low group (47.5 ± 63.3 μg/g; median 18.8 μg/g; range: 1.6-198.1 μg/g), P = 0.04. No clear difference was observed for lactoferrin (high TiO2 group 1.6 ± 2.1 μg/g; median: 0.68 μg/g; range: 0.01-7.7 μg/g, low TiO2 group: 1.3 ± 2.6 μg/g; median: 0.2; range: 0.01-7.6 μg/g) (P = 0.15). A1AT concentration was positively associated with stool TiO2, after adjusting for confounders (β ± SE: 19.6 ± 7.2; P = 0.01) R2 = 0.38). Community dwelling, healthy adults with the highest TiO2 stool content had higher stool A1AT and calprotectin, compared to those with the lowest TiO2 stool content. Ongoing research is needed to validate these observations in larger groups, and to determine the long-term effects of ingested TiO2 on human gut health, using these and additional health endpoints.

Characterisation of engineered titanium dioxide nanoparticles in selected food

Titanium dioxide (TiO2), an E171 manufacturer-made food additive, is extensively utilised as a colourant in drug and a food products. Some studies showed that most of confectionary and food items contain inexplicable particles. The aim of this article is to determine the size and structure of TiO2 nanoparticles in different food products. Ten food samples, including coffee cream, white chocolate concentrate, frosting, gum, yoghurt candy, hard candies and chewy candies, were investigated for this purpose. The crystalline structure and particle size of TiO2 were determined by Powder X-ray Diffraction (PXRD) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). TEM images revealed that a few of the extracted nanoparticles had a rod-like shape, but most were spherical. Also, the size of the TiO2 particle had a wide distribution between 12 and 450 nm. Thus, to avoid human health risk, crucial factors such as size, and shape should be considered and regulated by food authorities.

Baseline titanium levels of three highly consumed invertebrates from an eutrophic estuary in southeastern Brazil

Titanium (Ti) is considered a contaminant of emerging interest, as it displays toxic potential and has been increasingly employed in everyday products, pharmaceuticals, and food additives, mainly in nanoparticle form. However, several knowledge gaps are still noted, especially concerning its dynamics in the water. In this context, this study aimed to quantify total Ti concentrations in highly consumed swimming crabs, squid, and shrimp from an important estuary located in southeastern Brazil. Ti concentrations were higher than those reported in most studies carried out worldwide. Animal length and weight, as well as, depth, transparency, dissolved oxygen, and salinity, significantly influence Ti concentrations in the animals. Human health risks were also noted after calculating a simulated exposure to titanium dioxide, especially considering the uncertainties regarding the effects of this element and the absence of regulatory limits.

Characterization of titanium dioxide nanoparticles in confectionary products and estimation of dietary exposure level among the Chinese population

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) is widely used in the food industry. Recently, European Commission has banned TiO₂ as a food additive, raising public concern about its health risk, especially the nanoparticles (NPs) contained therein. This study aimed to reveal the existence of TiO₂ NPs in food and further estimate the dietary exposure level among Chinese population by characterizing particle size distribution, determining Ti content and micro-distribution in food products, and calculating food consumption from the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS). The results showed that TiO₂ particle size in food additives and chewing gums was 53.5-230.3 nm and 56.8-267.7 nm respectively, where NPs accounted for 34.7% and 55.6% respectively. TiO₂ was firstly in situ presented on the surface of confectionary products with hard shells. The content of TiO₂ ranged from 3.2 to 3409.3 μg/g product. Besides, the mean dietary intake was 71.31 μg/kg_bw/day for TiO₂ and 7.75 μg/kg_bw/day for TiO₂ NPs among Chinese population, affected by people's dietary habits of different regions. Children's exposure levels was the highest due to their love of sweets. More attention should be paid to risk assessment and management of TiO₂ NPs for children in China.

Nanoparticle Food Applications and Their Toxicity: Current Trends and Needs in Risk Assessment Strategies

ABSTRACT

Nanotechnology has developed into one of the most groundbreaking scientific fields in the last few decades because it exploits the enhanced reactivity of materials at the atomic scale. The current classification of nanoparticles (NPs) used in foods is outlined in relation to the production and physicochemical characteristics. This review aims to concisely present the most popular and widely used inorganic and organic NPs in food industries. Considering that the toxicity of NPs is often associated with chemical reactivity, a series of in vitro toxicity studies are also summarized, integrating information on the type of NP studies and reported specifications, type of cells used, exposure conditions, and assessed end points. The important role of the digestive system in the absorption and distribution of nanoformulated foods within the body and how this affects the resultant cytotoxicity. Examples of how NPs and their accumulation within different organs are presented in relation to the consumption of specific foods. Finally, the role of developing human health risk assessments to characterize both the potential impact of the hazard and the likelihood or level of human exposure is outlined. Uncertainties exist around risk and exposure assessments of NPs due to limited information on several aspects, including toxicity, behavior, and bioaccumulation. Overall, this review presents current trends and needs for future assessments in toxicity evaluation to ensure the safe application of NPs in the food industry.

HIGHLIGHTS

Dietary exposure of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) from canned seafood by single particle ICP-MS: Balancing of risks and benefits for human health

The present study aims to give information regarding the quantification of ZnO-NPs in canned seafood, which may be intentionally or unintentionally added, and to provide a first esteem of dietary exposure. Samples were subjected to an alkaline digestion and assessment of ZnO-NPs was performed by the single particle ICP-MS technique. ZnO-NPs were found with concentrations range from 0.003 to 0.010 mg/kg and a size mean range from 61.3 and 78.6 nm. It was not observed a clear bioaccumulation trend according to trophic level and size of seafood species, although the mollusk species has slightly higher concentrations and larger size. The number of ZnO-NPs/g does not differ significantly among food samples, observing an average range of 5.51 × 10⁶ - 9.97 × 10⁶. Dissolved Zn determined with spICP-MS revealed comparable concentration to total Zn determined with ICP-MS in standard mode, confirming the efficiency of alkaline digestion on the extraction of the Zn. The same accumulation trend found for ZnO-NPs was observed more clearly for dissolved Zn. The ZnO-NPs intake derived from a meal does not differ significantly among seafood products and it ranges from 0.010 to 0.031 µg/kg b.w. in adult, and from 0.022 to 0.067 µg/kg b.w. in child. Conversely, the intake of dissolved Zn is significantly higher if it is assumed a meal of mollusks versus the fish products, with values of 109.3 µg/kg b.w. for adult and 240.1 µg/kg b.w. for child. Our findings revealed that ZnO-NPs have the potential to bioaccumulate in marine organisms, and seafood could be an important uptake route of ZnO-NPs. These results could be a first important step to understand the ZnO-NPs human dietary exposure, but the characterization and quantification of ZnO-NPs is necessary for a large number of food items.

Does aquatic sediment pollution result in contaminated food sources?

The sediment pollution of the aquatic environment by waste due to anthropogenic activity is of an increasing concern. The contaminants coming from the aquatic environment can enter the aquatic food chain and accumulate in the tissues of fish and shellfish used for human consumption. The aim of this study was to sum up the current level of knowledge concerning the pollution of aquatic sediments and its transfer to aquatic foods as well as to indicate whether such contamination has the potential to affect the health and welfare of aquatic organisms as well as the quality and safety of the species intended for human consumption. Based on the results of scientific studies, the European Food Safety Authority, and the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed, contamination of fish and seafood occurs predominantly through their diet and the levels of bioaccumulative contaminants are higher in fish which rank higher in the food chain. Contamination of aquatic habitats can not only significantly affect behavior, development, and welfare of aquatic organisms, but it can also affect the safety of fish and seafood for human consumption.

The Influence of Long-Term Dietary Intake of Titanium Dioxide Particles on Elemental Homeostasis and Tissue Structure of Mouse Organs

Background: Titanium dioxide (TiO₂), consisting of nanoparticles and sub-microparticles, were widely used as food additive and consumed by people every day, which has aroused a public safety concern. Some studies showed TiO₂ can be absorbed by intestine and then distributed to different tissues after oral intake, which is supposed to affect the content of various elements in the body whereas led to tissue damage. However, knowledge gaps still exist in the impact of TiO₂ on the disorder of elemental homeostasis. Thus, this study aimed to explore the oral toxicity of TiO₂ by assessing its influence on elemental homeostasis and tissues injury. Method: ICR mice were fed with normal feed, TiO₂ nanoparticles (NPs)-mixed feed or TiO₂ submicron particles (MPs)-mixed feed (1% mass fraction TiO₂ NPs or MPs were mixed in commercial pellet diet) for 1, 3, and 6 months. Particles used in this study were characterized. The distribution of Ti and other 23 elements, the correlation among elements, and pathological change in the liver, kidney, spleen and blood cells of the mice was determined. Result: Ti accumulation only appeared in blood cells of mice treated with TiO₂ MPs-mixed feed for 6 months, but TiO₂ cause 12 kinds of elements (boron, vanadium, iron, cobalt, copper, zinc, selenium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, silicon, phosphorus) content changed in organ tissue. The changed kinds of elements in blood cells (6 elements), liver (7 elements) or kidney (6 elements) were more than in the spleen (1 element). The TiO₂ NPs induced more elements changed in blood cells and liver, and the TiO₂ MPs induced more elements changed in kidney. Significantly positive correlation between Ti and other elements was found in different organs except the liver. Organ injuries caused by TiO₂ NPs were severer than TiO₂ MPs. Liver exhibited obvious pathological damage which became more serious with the increase of exposure time, while kidney and spleen had slight damages. Conclusion: These results indicated long-time dietary intake of TiO₂ particles could induce element imbalance and organ injury. The liver displayed more serious change than other organs, especially under the treatment with TiO₂ NPs. Further research on the oral toxicity of TiO₂ NPs should pay more attention to the health effects of element imbalances using realistic exposure methods.

Use of Food Additive Titanium Dioxide (E171) before the Introduction of Regulatory Restrictions Due to Concern for Genotoxicity

Food-grade titanium dioxide (TiO₂; E171) is a coloring food additive. In May 2021, a scientific opinion was published by the European Food Safety Authority concluding that TiO₂ can no longer be considered as a safe food additive. Our aim was to investigate the trends in the use of TiO₂ in the food supply. A case study was conducted in Slovenia using two nationally representative cross-sectional datasets of branded foods. Analysis was performed on N = 12,644 foods (6012 and 6632 in 2017 and 2020, respectively) from 15 food subcategories where TiO₂ was found as a food additive. A significant decrease was observed in the use of TiO₂ (3.6% vs. 1.8%; p < 0.01). TiO₂ was most often used in the chewing gum category (36.3%) in 2017, and chocolate and sweets category (45.9%) in 2020. Meanwhile, in 2017, the largest share of TiO₂-containing foods was observed in the chewing gum category, namely, 70.3%, and these products presented over 85% of the market share. In 2020, only 24.6% of chewing gums contained TiO₂, which accounted for only 3% of the market share. In conclusion, we showed an overall decrease in TiO₂ use, even though it has not yet been officially removed from the list of authorized food additives.

Caco-2 in vitro model of human gastrointestinal tract for studying the absorption of titanium dioxide and silver nanoparticles from seafood

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂ NPs) are widely used in industry as a white pigment (paints, paper industry and toothpastes), photocatalysts (environmental decontamination and photovoltaic cells), inorganic UV filter (sunscreens and personal care products) and as a food additive (E171) and antimicrobial food packaging material. Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) are used in photonics, microelectronics, catalysis and medicine due to their catalytic activity, magnetic and optical polarizability, electrical and thermal conductivities and enhanced Raman scattering. They also have antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activities, as well as anti-inflammatory potential. The huge increase in the use of nano-based products, mainly metallic NPs, implies the presence of nanomaterials in the environment, and hence, the unintentional human ingestion through water or foods (gastrointestinal tract is the main pathway of NPs intake in humans). The presence of TiO₂ NPs and Ag NPs in seafood samples was firstly established using an ultrasound assisted enzymatic hydrolysis procedure and sp-ICP-MS analysis. Several clams, cockles, mussels, razor clams, oysters and variegated scallops, which contain TiO₂ NPs and Ag NPs, were subjected to an in vitro digestion process simulating human gastrointestinal digestion in the stomach and in the small and large intestine to determine the bioaccessibility of these NPs. Caco-2 cells were selected as model of human intestinal epithelium for transport studies because of the development of membrane transporters that are responsible for the uptake of chemicals. Parameters as transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and permeability of Lucifer Yellow were studied for establishing cell monolayer integrity. TiO₂ NPs and Ag NPs transport as well as total Ti and Ag concentrations passing through the gastrointestinal epithelial barrier model (0-2 h) were assessed by sp-ICP-MS and ICP-MS in several molluscs.

Safety assessment of titanium dioxide (E171) as a food additive

The present opinion deals with an updated safety assessment of the food additive titanium dioxide (E 171) based on new relevant scientific evidence considered by the Panel to be reliable, including data obtained with TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) and data from an extended one-generation reproductive toxicity (EOGRT) study. Less than 50% of constituent particles by number in E 171 have a minimum external dimension < 100 nm. In addition, the Panel noted that constituent particles < 30 nm amounted to less than 1% of particles by number. The Panel therefore considered that studies with TiO2 NPs < 30 nm were of limited relevance to the safety assessment of E 171. The Panel concluded that although gastrointestinal absorption of TiO2 particles is low, they may accumulate in the body. Studies on general and organ toxicity did not indicate adverse effects with either E 171 up to a dose of 1,000 mg/kg body weight (bw) per day or with TiO2 NPs (> 30 nm) up to the highest dose tested of 100 mg/kg bw per day. No effects on reproductive and developmental toxicity were observed up to a dose of 1,000 mg E 171/kg bw per day, the highest dose tested in the EOGRT study. However, observations of potential immunotoxicity and inflammation with E 171 and potential neurotoxicity with TiO2 NPs, together with the potential induction of aberrant crypt foci with E 171, may indicate adverse effects. With respect to genotoxicity, the Panel concluded that TiO2 particles have the potential to induce DNA strand breaks and chromosomal damage, but not gene mutations. No clear correlation was observed between the physico-chemical properties of TiO2 particles and the outcome of either in vitro or in vivo genotoxicity assays. A concern for genotoxicity of TiO2 particles that may be present in E 171 could therefore not be ruled out. Several modes of action for the genotoxicity may operate in parallel and the relative contributions of different molecular mechanisms elicited by TiO2 particles are not known. There was uncertainty as to whether a threshold mode of action could be assumed. In addition, a cut-off value for TiO2 particle size with respect to genotoxicity could not be identified. No appropriately designed study was available to investigate the potential carcinogenic effects of TiO2 NPs. Based on all the evidence available, a concern for genotoxicity could not be ruled out, and given the many uncertainties, the Panel concluded that E 171 can no longer be considered as safe when used as a food additive.

Effect of food on orally-ingested titanium dioxide and zinc oxide nanoparticle behaviors in simulated digestive tract

Nanomaterials have been widely utilized in human daily life. The interaction between nanoparticles (NPs) and food matrices through oral ingestion is important for fate and potential toxicity of NPs. In this study, the interaction between NPs (i.e., titanium dioxide (TiO₂) and zinc oxide (ZnO)) and food matrices (namely sucrose, protein powder, and corn oil) was investigated by use of an in vitro physiological model. Measurement using asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation (AF₄) showed that particle size of TiO₂ NPs in saliva fluid decreased from 102 ± 6.21 nm (control) to 69.2 ± 6.90 and 81.9 ± 4.30 nm in protein powder and corn oil. Similar trend was also observed for ZnO. Compared with gastric fluid, micelles formed by corn oil in intestinal fluid further dispersed NPs, as indicated by approximately 11.1% and 13.2% decrease in particle size of TiO₂ and ZnO NPs, respectively. Characterization of TEM, FTIR and AFM showed that a layer of biological corona was attached on surface of NPs in protein and oil. The XPS demonstrated that oil bound with NPs through forming covalent bonds, while protein bound with NPs through van der Waals force and electrostatic force for TiO₂ and ZnO NPs, respectively. The result here demonstrated the importance of considering food effect when investigating the morphology and behavior of NPs after oral ingestion. This understanding was valuable in assessment of environmental fate and biological effects of NPs.

Chemical Characterization and Quantification of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs) in Seafood by Single-Particle ICP-MS: Assessment of Dietary Exposure

The significant increase in the production and variety of nanoparticles (NPs) has led to their release into the environment, especially into the marine environment. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂-NPs) are used in different industrial sectors, from the food industry to several consumer and household products. Since the aquatic environment is highly sensitive to contamination by TiO₂-NPs, this work aimed to give a preliminary assessment of the contamination of packaged seafood, where the food additive TiO₂ (E171) is not to be intentionally added. This allowed providing a chemical characterization and quantification of TiO₂-NPs in processed canned fish products belonging to different trophic positions of the pelagic compartment and in canned clam. The new emerging technique called single-particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (spICP-MS) was applied, which allows the determination of nanoparticle number-based concentration, as well as the dissolved titanium. This study highlights how processed food, where the pigment E171 was not intentionally added, contains TiO₂ in its nanoparticle form, as well as dissolved titanium. Processed clam represented the seafood with the highest content of TiO₂-NPs. In pelagic fish species, we found progressively higher levels and smaller sizes of TiO₂-NPs from smaller to larger fish. Our results highlight the importance of planning the characterization and quantification of TiO₂-NPs in food both processed and not, as well as where the pigment E171 is intentionally added and not, as it is not the only source of TiO₂-NPs. This result represents a solid step toward being able to estimate the real level of dietary exposure to TiO₂-NPs for the general population and the related health risks.

Nanomaterials in Food - Prioritisation & Assessment

Nanomaterials (NMs) are of significant economic interest and have a huge impact on many industries including the food industry. The main application in food industry includes food additives and food packaging. However, the effects of NMs on human health are highly discussed, as well as the need of harmonised analytical methods and risk assessment methodologies. In line with these discussions, the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) has started in 2017 a 2‐year project focusing on NMs in food, to which the fellow was involved under the framework of the European Food Risk Assessment Fellowship Programme (EU‐FORA). This technical report contains a description of the working program, the aims and the activities to which the fellow was involved during this placement. The main aims of the programme were to be involved in different steps of risk assessment process, to improve knowledge regarding food process, analytical and toxicological methods and to learn how to conduct expert assessments. All aims were linked with different kind of activities. Gaining hands‐on experience on food risk assessment was achieved mainly by collecting occurrence data and performing exposure assessment calculations for the ‘of concern’ NMs, while scheduled visits to laboratories specialising in analytical methods of nanoparticles and toxicological studies helped to improve knowledge in these fields. Regular participation in the Working Group (GT) related to NMs in food and interaction with experts within ANSES facilitated the learning process of how to conduct collective expertise as well as to be further trained in risk assessment processes. Furthermore, apart from knowledge gained in risk assessment and NMs, the fellow was able to obtain transferable skills and knowledge that can be used to increase the scientific capacity of the fellow's home institute as well as to expand her scientific network, which could lead to collaboration opportunities in the future well beyond this fellowship.

Nanotechnology interventions in aquaculture and seafood preservation

The inclusion of nanotechnologies in aquaculture and seafood preservation confronts a new edge that deserves attention in the recent trends of global food sector. Nanotechnology, being a novel and innovative approach has paved way to open up new perspective for the analysis of biomolecules, targeted drug delivery, protein or cells, clinical diagnosis, development of non-viral vectors for gene therapy, as transport vehicle for DNA, disease therapeutics etc. The current and potential use of nanotechnology would show the way to progression of smart and high performing fish. The comparative evaluation of extremely sophisticated nanotechnology with conventional process engineering proposes new prospectus in technological developments for superior water and wastewater technology processes. Nanoparticles have comprehensive advantages for management of drugs as liberation of vaccines and therefore hold the assurance for civilized protection of farmed fish against disease-causing pathogens. This review article explores the present concerns of food security, climate change as well as sustainability that are explored by the researchers in the area of nanotechnology, development of marine produce, along with its preservation and aquaculture.

Review of the effects of silver nanoparticle exposure on gut bacteria

Gut bacteria are involved in regulating several important physiological functions in the host, and intestinal dysbacteriosis plays an important role in several human diseases, including intestinal, metabolic and autoimmune disorders. Although silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are increasingly being incorporated into medical and consumer products due to their unique physicochemical properties, studies have indicated their potential to affect adversely the gut bacteria. In this review, we focus on the biotoxicological effects of AgNPs entering the gastrointestinal tract and the relationship of these effects with important nanoscale properties. We discuss in detail the mechanisms underlying the bactericidal toxicity effects of AgNPs and explore the relationships between AgNPs, gut bacteria and disease. Finally, we highlight the need to focus on the negative effects of AgNPs usage to facilitate appropriate development of these particles.

miR-96-5p and miR-101-3p as potential intervention targets to rescue TiO2NP-induced autophagy and migration impairment of human trophoblastic cells

Autophagy induced by titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂NPs) has been realized nowadays, but the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown.