A multi-residue method for determining twenty-four endocrine disrupting chemicals in vegetables and fruits using ultrasound-assisted solid-liquid extraction and continuous solid-phase extraction

Bisphenol A and its analogues: from their occurrence in foodstuffs marketed in Europe to improved monitoring strategies-a review of published literature from 2018 to 2023

In this review article, the research works covering the analytical determination of bisphenol A (BPA) and its structural analogues published from 2018 to present (February 2024) were examined. The review offers an overview of the concentration levels of these xenoestrogens in food and beverages, and discusses concerns that these may possibly pose to the human health and scrutinises, from an analytical perspective, the main biomonitoring approaches that are applied. This comes as a natural evolution of a previous review that covered the same topic but in earlier years (up to 2017). As compared to the past, while the volume of published literature on this topic has not necessarily decreased, the research studies are now much more homogeneous in terms of their geographical origin, i.e., Southern Europe (mainly Italy and Spain). For this reason, an estimated daily intake of the European population could not be calculated at this time. In terms of the analytical approaches that were applied, 67% of the research groups exploited liquid chromatography (LC), with a detection that was prevalently (71%) afforded by mass spectrometry, with over one-fourth of the research teams using fluorescence (26%) and a minority (3%) detecting the analytes with diode array detection. One-third of the groups used gas chromatography (GC)-mass spectrometry achieving comparatively superior efficiency as compared to LC. Derivatisation was performed in 59% of the GC studies to afford more symmetrical signals and enhanced sensitivity. Although the contamination levels are well below the threshold set by governments, routinely biomonitoring is encouraged because of the possible accumulation of these contaminants in the human body and of their interplay with other xenoestrogens.

A functionalized glass fiber as the adsorbent for efficient analysis of endocrine disruptors in aqueous environments

Estrogens and bisphenols are typical endocrine disruptors (EDs) that pose a potential hazard to the human body due to their widespread presence in aqueous environments. In this study, a β-cyclodextrin porous crosslinked polymer (β-CD-PCP) was prepared in-situ on a glass fiber surface by a nucleophilic substitution reaction. An effective and sensitive solid phase microextraction method using functionalized glass fiber with β-CD-PCP coating as the adsorbent was established for the detection of 11 EDs in a water environment. The β-CD-PCP was in-situ prepared on a glass fiber surface by a nucleophilic substitution reaction. The β-CD-PCP successfully separated five estrogens (ESTs) and six bisphenols (BPs) through hydrophobic and π-π interactions. The conditions affecting extraction were optimized. Under the optimized conditions, the ESTs obtained a high enrichment effect (1795-2328), low limits of detection (0.047 µg L-1) and a good linearity range (0.2-15.0 µg L-1). Furthermore, the spiked recoveries of analyte ESTs in aqueous environments were between 82.9-115.7 %. The results indicated that the prepared functionalized glass fibers exhibited good adsorption properties, and the established analytical method was reliable for monitoring trace ESTs and BPs in aqueous environments.

Bioprospecting photosynthetic microorganisms for the removal of endocrine disruptor compounds

Endocrine disruption compounds can be found in various daily products, like pesticides, along with cosmetic and pharmaceutical commodities. Moreover, occurrence of EDCs in the wastewater alarms the urgency for their removal before discharge owing to the harmful effect for the environment and human health. Compared to implementation of physical and chemical strategies, cultivation of photosynthetic microorganisms has been acknowledged for their high efficiency and eco-friendly process in EDCs removal along with accumulation of valuable byproducts. During the process, photosynthetic microorganisms remove EDCs via photodegradation, bio-adsorption, -accumulation, and -degradation. Regarding their high tolerance in extreme environment, photosynthetic microorganisms have high feasibility for implementation in wastewater treatment plant. However, several considerations are critical for their scaling up process. This review discussed the potency of EDCs removal by photosynthetic microorganisms and focused on the efficiency, mechanism, challenge, along with the prospect. Details on the mechanism's pathway, accumulation of valuable byproducts, and recent progress in scaling up and application in real wastewater were also projected in this review.

Synthesis of amine-functionalized magnetic porous organic polymers for effective extraction of phenolic endocrine disrupting chemicals

Amine-functionalized porous organic polymers (EDA-POP-PC and EDA-POP-BT) were prepared by post-modification of POP-PC and POP-BT with ethylenediamine (EDA) for the first time. The POP-PC and POP-BT were obtained through Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction of potassium tetraphenylborate with p-phthaloyl chloride (PC) and 1,3,5-benzenetricarbonyl trichloride (BT), respectively. The EDA-POPs exhibited superior adsorption capacity for phenolic endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). After magnetically functionalization, the obtained M-EDA-POP-PC was employed as a magnetic adsorbent for enrichment of phenolic EDCs from real samples prior to high performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection. The current strategy showed low detection limits (S/N = 3) of 0.02-0.07, 0.04-0.08 and 0.04-0.10 ng mL-1 for river water, white peach juice and lychee juice, respectively. The method recoveries were 81.7%-115% with relative standard deviations below 8.6%. The proposed strategy showed good practicality for sensitive determination of phenolic EDCs in real samples.

Surveillance and dietary risk assessment of endocrine-disrupting pesticides in eggplant/brinjal and cauliflower in Pakistan

Several pesticides (used in vegetable production) have recently been identified as potential endocrine disruptors. The current study aimed to determine the consumer exposure risk associated with eating contaminated vegetables. The European Union-citrate buffered QuEChERS extraction protocol, validated in accordance with the European Union guidelines, was used to monitor selected endocrine-disrupting pesticides in eggplant/brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) and cauliflower (Brassica oleracea) marketed in Rawalpindi/Islamabad, Pakistan. A total of 80 and 69 percent of eggplant/brinjal (n = 25) and cauliflower (n = 26) samples were found contaminated, respectively. Sixty-five percent of cauliflower samples were found non-contaminated with both European Union (EU) and Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) maximum residue limits (MRL), while 20 % of brinjal samples were found to be non-compliant with EU-MRL. Both vegetables contained high levels of the androgen antagonist chlorpyrifos and the thyroid hormone inhibitor cyhalothrin-lambda. The estimated acute health risk associated with dietary exposure to chlorpyrifos and cyhalothrin-lambda in cauliflower for both males and females was found to be greater than 200 % of the FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on Pesticide Residues' (JMPR) established acute reference dose. The estimated chronic health risk for all studied endocrine-disrupting pesticides (0-5.27 %) indicates zero to very low health risk for studied population groups.

Hazard characterization of bisphenol A (BPA) based on rodent models - Multilevel meta-analysis and dose-response analysis for reproductive toxicity

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widely used synthetic industrial compound frequently detected in food. Dietary exposure to BPA has been recognised as a potential health concern. However, there are uncertainties regarding BPA toxicity. The primary objective of this study was to summarise and analyse multiple toxicity endpoints of adverse reproductive effects caused by BPA exposure in rodent models. Therefore, a multilevel meta-analysis and subsequent dose-response analysis were conducted. Relevant articles published in English between 2012 and 2021 were collected from online databases, viz. Scopus, EmBase, Web of Science, and PubMed. In total, 41 studies were included for statistical analysis. All statistical analyses were performed using open-source RStudio packages. Summary effects indicated the statistical significance of BPA exposure on decreased sperm concentration (Hedges' g: -1.35) and motility (Hedges' g: -1.12) on average, while no significant effects were observed on the absolute and relative weight of male and female reproductive organs. The lowest mean toxicological reference dose values of 0.0011 mg (kg bw)^-1 day^-1 was proposed for BPA exposure on sperm concentration from the dose-response model. In conclusion, potential health risks from BPA exposure were shown with regards to reproductive toxicity, especially that sperm concentration and sperm motility require further attention.

Review of extraction and detection techniques for the analysis of pesticide residues in fruits to evaluate food safety and make legislative decisions: Challenges and anticipations

Fruits are vital parts of the human diet because they include necessary nutrients that the body needs. Pesticide use has increased dramatically in recent years to combat fruit pests across the world. Pesticide usage during production, on the other hand, frequently results in undesirable residues in fruits after harvest. Consumers are concerned about pesticide residues since most of the fruits are directly consumed and even recommended for the patients as dietary supplements. As a result of this worry, pesticide residues in fruits are being randomly monitored to re-assess the food safety situation and make informed legislative decisions. To assess the degree of pesticide residues in fruits, a simple and quick analytical procedure is usually required. As a result, pesticide residue detection (using various analytical techniques: GC, LC and Biosensors) becomes critical, and regulatory directives are formed to regulate their amounts via the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL). Over the previous two decades, a variety of extraction techniques and analytical methodologies for xenobiotic's efficient extraction, identification, confirmation and quantification have been developed, ranging from traditional to advanced. The goal of this review is to give readers an overview of the evolution of numerous extraction and detection methods for pesticide residue analysis in fruits. The objective is to assist analysts in better understanding how the ever-changing regulatory landscape might drive the need for new analytical methodologies to be developed in order to comply with current standards and safeguard consumers.

Determination and dietary intake risk assessment of 35 pesticide residues in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp) from Hainan province, China

The presence of pesticide residues in cowpea raises serious health concerns. In this study, a novel, sensitive, high-performance method was developed to simultaneously analyze the residues of 35 pesticides in cowpea samples from growing areas in the Hainan province of China, from November 2018 to June 2021. The method employs modified QuEChERS sample pretreatment coupled with gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The limits of quantification of the 35 pesticides in the cowpea matrix ranged from 1.0 to 8.0 μg/kg. Twenty-seven of the 35 pesticides were detected, twelve of which are banned for use on legumes in China. Residues for ten pesticides in 17.1% of the samples exceeded their MRLs, with the highest exceedance of 380% observed in difenoconazole. Moreover, 80.8% of the samples contained one or more pesticide residues, with the most frequently detected pesticide being chlorfenapyr with a detection rate of 46.3%. In addition, the pesticide triazophos was detected through different years and regions. Notably, the chronic dietary exposure risk (%ADI) of the detected pesticides, evaluated from the national estimated acceptable daily intake, was lower than 100% in Chinese people of different age groups.

Endocrine Disruptors-'Food' for Thought

Green vegetables, fruits, cereals, and pulses are all rich sources of antioxidants. Retinoic acid, ascorbate, proanthocyanidins, tannins, saponins, melatonin, curcumin, allicin, and alpha-lipoic acid stand documented in plants as bioactive compounds. The international dietary committee advocates a specific quantum of these natural antioxidants through diet. Interestingly, environmental pollution has indeed affected most of these farm products. The use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and heavy metals in soil has a cumulative effect on human health. Enough evidence is available for the presence of phytoestrogen, xenoestrogen, and a host of other endocrine disruptors in the food. These plant-based nutrients can mimic or enhance the natural hormone's health effects. While endocrine disruptors are found in many everyday products, this review aims to address endocrine disruptors from food in the Asian subcontinent. 'Food for thought' justifies the paradigm shift towards good endocrine health by swaying away from the conventional daily dietary recommendations.

Novel semi-automated graphene nanosheets based pipette-tip assisted micro-solid phase extraction as eco-friendly technique for the rapid detection of emerging environmental pollutant in waters

In this work, a new semi-automated syringe infusion-pump assisted graphene nanosheets (GNSs) based pipette-tip micro-solid phase extraction (PT-μSPE) as a green sample preparation technique was demonstrated for the sensitive analysis of emerging environmental pollutant in environmental waters using HPLC-UV. Microwave-assisted synthesized GNSs powder was packed into a 100 μL pipette-tip (as PT-μSPE cartridge) connected with a commercial plastic syringe (contains water sample). This setup was attached to a programmable auto-syringe infusion pump for the GNSs-PT-μSPE process. Triclosan (TCS) is an emerging environmental pollutant chosen as a target analyte to examine the extraction capacity and feasibility of GNSs as a sorbent material for PT-μSPE. Parameters affecting the extraction capability were systematically evaluated and thoroughly optimized. At optimized experimental parameters, excellent linearity (r² = 0.9979) was achieved over the concentration range of 2-250 ng mL^-1 for TCS, with a detection limit of 0.5 ng mL^-1. Applicability of the presented method was examined with real water samples, and extraction recoveries obtained were ranged between 94.6-102.4% with RSD less than 7.8%. The presented protocol is a simple, semi-automated, eco-friendly, low-cost, and efficient sample pretreatment technique for quick analysis of TCS in environmental wastewaters.