A review study on new aspects of biodemulsifiers: Production, features and their application in wastewater treatment

The Optimization of Demulsification Using Composite Fatty Acids in Aqueous Enzymatic Extraction and the Changes of the Emulsion Stability During Demulsification

Aqueous enzymatic extraction (AEE) can simultaneously separate oil and protein. However, a stable O/W emulsion is present in the AEE process, which is not favorable for extracting oils. This study optimized the use of heptanoic and octanoic acids for demulsification in aqueous enzymatic extraction. The optimal condition for demulsification, including a fatty acid ratio of 1:3 (heptanoic acid to octanoic acid) with 1.00% addition, a reaction time of 40 min, a temperature of 70 °C, and a solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:5, resulted in a demulsification rate of 97.95% ± 0.03%. After demulsification, the particle size of the peanut emulsion increased, while the absolute potential value and conductivity decreased. The type and content of proteins decreased, and the tertiary structure also changed, with tryptophan residues buried within the proteins, shifting the system from a polar to nonpolar environment. The microstructure of the emulsion changed and the emulsion transformed into W/O. To summarize, composite fatty acid had a significant effect on the demulsification of emulsion.

Deep dewatering of oily sludge: Mechanism, characterization, and pretreatment technology

Oily sludge, characterized by its high organic pollution, poses significant challenges for treatment and disposal due to its high proportion of bound water and elevated viscosity from petroleum hydrocarbons. This study focuses on the deep dewatering of oily sludge, examining the role of internal bound water and the pretreatment mechanisms involved. The deep dewatering process is categorized into two main areas: liberation of bound water and modification of physicochemical properties. (1) Bound water is primarily found in two major categories: water bound within proteins, EPS, and cells through hydrophilic interactions, and water within an oil-water emulsion structure facilitated by inorganic particles. (2) Physicochemical properties: The formation of flocs in oily sludge is crucial for effective dewatering, while creating dewatering channels in later stages enhances efficiency. Advanced oxidation and emerging demulsification technologies are also discussed, summarizing the latest research. The significant potential of electric fields in the deep dewatering of oily sludge is emphasized, offering valuable insights for future advancements.

Studying surfactant mass transport through dynamic interfacial tension measurements: A review of the models, experiments, and the contribution of microfluidics

Surfactant mass transport towards an interface plays a critical role during formation of emulsions, foams and in industrial processes where two immiscible phases coexist. The understanding of these mechanisms as experimentally observed by dynamic interfacial tension measurements, is crucial. In this review, theoretical models describing both equilibrated systems and surfactant kinetics are covered. Experimental results from the literature are analysed based on the nature of surfactants and the tensiometry methods used. The innovative microfluidic techniques that have become available to study both diffusion and adsorption mechanisms during surfactant mass transport are discussed and compared with classical methods. This review focuses on surfactant transport during formation of droplets or bubbles; stabilisation of dispersed systems is not discussed here.

Lichenysin-like Polypeptide Production by Bacillus licheniformis B3-15 and Its Antiadhesive and Antibiofilm Properties

We report the ability of the crude biosurfactant (BS B3-15), produced by the marine, thermotolerant Bacillus licheniformis B3-15, to hinder the adhesion and biofilm formation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213 to polystyrene and human cells. First, we attempted to increase the BS yield, optimizing the culture conditions, and evaluated the surface-active properties of cell-free supernatants. Under phosphate deprivation (0.06 mM) and 5% saccharose, the yield of BS (1.5 g/L) increased by 37%, which could be explained by the earlier (12 h) increase in lchAA expression compared to the non-optimized condition (48 h). Without exerting any anti-bacterial activity, BS (300 µg/mL) prevented the adhesion of P. aeruginosa and S. aureus to polystyrene (47% and 36%, respectively) and disrupted the preformed biofilms, being more efficient against S. aureus (47%) than P. aeruginosa (26%). When added to human cells, the BS reduced the adhesion of P. aeruginosa and S. aureus (10× and 100,000× CFU/mL, respectively) without altering the epithelial cells' viability. As it is not cytotoxic, BS B3-15 could be useful to prevent or remove bacterial biofilms in several medical and non-medical applications.

Alginate@Fe3O4@Bentonite nanocomposite for formaldehyde removal from synthetic and real effluent: optimization by central composite design

In this study, Alginate@ Fe₃O₄/Bentonite nanocomposite was utilized to eliminate formaldehyde from wastewater. Structural features of bentonite, bentonite@Fe₃O₄, and Alginate@Fe₃O₄@Bentonite were determined using FT-IR, PXRD, Mapping, EDX, TEM, SEM, VSM, and BET analyses. The central composite design method was employed to find the optimal conditions for formaldehyde removal using Alg@Fe₃O₄@Bent nanocomposite. The maximum formaldehyde uptake efficiency (94.56%) was obtained at formaldehyde concentration of 10.69 ppm, the nanocomposite dose of 1.28 g/L, and pH of 9.96 after 16.53 min. Also, Alginate@Fe₃O₄@Bentonite composite was used to eliminate formaldehyde from Razi petrochemical wastewater and was able to eliminate 91.24% of formaldehyde, 70% of COD, and 68.9% of BOD₅. The isotherm and kinetic investigations demonstrated that the formaldehyde uptake process by the foresaid adsorbent follows the Langmuir isotherm and quasi-first-order kinetic models, respectively. Also, the maximum uptake capacity was obtained at 50.25 mg/g. Moreover, the formaldehyde uptake process by the aforementioned nanocomposite was exothermic and spontaneous. Furthermore, the formaldehyde adsorption efficiency decreased slightly after six reuse cycles (less than 10%), indicating that Alginate@Fe₃O₄@Bentonite nanocomposite has remarkable recyclability. Besides, the influence of interfering ions like nitrate, carbonate, chloride, phosphate, and sulfate was studied on the formaldehyde removal efficiency and the results displayed that all ions except nitrate ion have low interaction with formaldehyde (less than 3% reduction in removal efficiency).

A comprehensive study on microbial-surfactants from bioproduction scale-up toward electrokinetics remediation of environmental pollutants: Challenges and perspectives

Currently, researchers have focused on electrokinetic (EK) bioremediation due to its potential to remove a wide-range of pollutants. Further, to improve their performance, synthetic surfactants are employed as effective additives because of their excellent solubility and mobility. Synthetic surfactants have an excessive position in industries since they are well-established, cheap, and easily available. Nevertheless, these surfactants have adverse environmental effects and could be detrimental to aquatic and terrestrial life. Owing to social and environmental awareness, there is a rising demand for bio-based surfactants in the global market, from environmental sustainability to public health, because of their excellent surface and interfacial activity, higher and stable emulsifying property, biodegradability, non- or low toxicity, better selectivity and specificity at extreme environmental conditions. Unfortunately, challenges to biosurfactants, like expensive raw materials, low yields, and purification processes, hinder their applicability to large-scale. To date, extensive research has already been conducted for production scale-up using multidisciplinary approaches. However, it is still essential to research and develop high-yielding bacteria for bioproduction through traditional and biotechnological advances to reduce production costs. Herein, this review evaluates the recent progress made on microbial-surfactants for bioproduction scale-up and provides detailed information on traditional and advanced genetic engineering approaches for cost-effective bioproduction. Furthermore, this study emphasized the role of electrokinetic (EK) bioremediation and discussed the application of BioS-mediated EK for various pollutants remediation.

Utilization of nano volcanic ash as a natural economical adsorbent for removing cadmium from wastewater

The physical properties of volcanic ashes (pumice and scoria) differ based on the locations and historical conditions of the volcanic eruptions, affecting their utilization in applications. In this study, the effectiveness of nano volcanic ash from Al Jabal Al Abyad in eliminating cadmium from aqueous solutions was investigated. Volcanic ash powder was initially milled using a high-energy ball mill to obtain particles with sizes of approximately 500 and 100 nm that were used as adsorbents. The mineralogical and physicochemical properties of the volcanic ash powder were determined using X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, and Barrett-Joyner-Halenda analysis. Then, the characteristics of cadmium adsorption (from an aqueous solution) on the volcanic ash powder and nano volcanic ash were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry by varying the solution pH, contact time, and initial metal (Cd) ion concentration. Isothermal adsorption and kinetic models were used to determine the analytical potential of the nano volcanic ash. Based on isothermal adsorption analysis, the adsorption capacity increased from 31 to 166 mg/g at pH 6. The adsorption capacity of volcanic ash was much more efficient than that of other natural absorbents owing to its chemical composition, the production of nanoparticles from powdered volcanic ash, and the increase surface area of the adsorbent from 0.293 m²/g to 20.8735 m²/g. The results showed that the adsorption process occurred mainly via monolayer adsorption on the homogeneous adsorbent surface, indicating the validity of the Langmuir adsorption isotherm model. The kinetic model showed that the adsorption of Cd on nano volcanic ash followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The adsorption capacity results indicated that nano volcanic ash from Al Jabal Al Abyad is an applicable candidate and economical adsorbent for removing heavy metals such as cadmium from industrial wastewaters.

Dodecenylsuccinic anhydride-modified oxalate decarboxylase loaded with magnetic nano-Fe3O4@SiO2 for demulsification of oil-in-water emulsions

The inability to demulsify oil-in-water emulsions via green and efficient processes is a challenging problem in many industrial processes. As a novel biodemulsifier, protein demulsifiers display excellent dispersibility and stability, but their demulsification mechanisms are not clear, which severely restricts their large-scale production and application. In this study, the demulsification mechanism of the high-efficiency protein biodemulsifier oxalate decarboxylase (Bacm OxdC), which is secreted by the Bacillus mojavensis XH1 strain, for an oil-in-water emulsion was analyzed. The results showed that Bacm OxdC was spontaneously adsorbed at the oil-water interface and turned its hydrophobic amino acids outward to increase its hydrophobicity and break the emulsified system. Furthermore, it effectively reduced the oil-water interfacial tension and interfacial film strength, thereby reducing the oil-water interfacial energy and finally enabling demulsification. To further improve the demulsification efficiency and reusability, Fe₃O₄@SiO₂@OxdC-DDSA was prepared. This method provided a magnetic response for Bacm OxdC and enabled efficient demulsification. The demulsification rate of Fe₃O₄@SiO₂@OxdC-DDSA reached 98.1% at 24 h, which was 30.7% higher than that of the original Bacm OxdC. After three cycles, the demulsification rate still reached 89.3%, proving it has excellent recyclability. This work is the first study on the demulsification mechanism of protein biodemulsifiers and provides useful insights into the demulsification mechanism of biodemulsifiers for oil-in-water emulsions. In addition, a promising high-efficiency modification technique for protein biodemulsifiers was proposed, which provided information for the development of biodemulsifiers for oil-water separation.

Lichenysin Production by Bacillus licheniformis Food Isolates and Toxicity to Human Cells

Bacillus licheniformis can cause foodborne intoxication due to the production of the surfactant lichenysin. The aim of this study was to measure the production of lichenysin by food isolates of B. licheniformis in LB medium and skimmed milk and its cytotoxicity for intestinal cells. Out of 11 B. licheniformis isolates tested, most showed robust growth in high salt (1M NaCl), 4% ethanol, at 37 or 55°C, and aerobic and anaerobic conditions. All strains produced lichenysin (in varying amounts), but not all strains were hemolytic. Production of this stable compound by selected strains (high producers B4094 and B4123, and type strain DSM13^T) was subsequently determined using LB medium and milk, at 37 and 55°C. Lichenysin production in LB broth and milk was not detected at cell densities < 5 log₁₀ CFU/ml. The highest concentrations were found in the stationary phase of growth. Total production of lichenysin was 4–20 times lower in milk than in LB broth (maximum 36 μg/ml), and ∼10 times lower in the biomass obtained from milk agar than LB agar. Under all conditions tested, strain B4094 consistently yielded the highest amounts. Besides strain variation and medium composition, temperature also had an effect on lichenysin production, with twofold lower amounts of lichenysin produced at 55°C than at 37°C. All three strains produced lichenysin A with varying acyl chain lengths (C11–C18). The relative abundance of the C14 variant was highest in milk and the C15 variant highest in LB. The concentration of lichenysin needed to reduce cell viability by 50% (IC₅₀) was 16.6 μg/ml for Caco-2 human intestinal epithelial cells and 16.8 μg/ml for pig ileum organoids. Taken together, the presence of low levels (<5 log₁₀ CFU/ml) of B. licheniformis in foods is unlikely to pose a foodborne hazard related to lichenysin production. However, depending on the strain present, the composition, and storage condition of the food, a risk of foodborne intoxication may arise if growth to high levels is supported and such product is ingested.