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Han Z, Xiong J, Zhou J, Wang Z, Hu T, Xu J. Microplastics removal from stormwater runoff by bioretention cells: A review. J Environ Sci (China) 2025; 154:73-90. [PMID: 40049912 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2024.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2024] [Revised: 07/01/2024] [Accepted: 07/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2025]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs), as a new category of environmental pollutant, have been the hotspot of eco-friendly issues nowadays. Studies based on the aging process, the migration pattern of MPs in runoff rainwater, and the use of bioretention cells to remove MPs from runoff rainwater are beginning to attract widespread attention. This review analyses the migration patterns of MPs in rainwater runoff through their sources, structure and characteristics. The mechanism of removing MPs from runoff stormwater, the purification efficiency of different fillers and their influencing factors, and the accumulation, fate, and aging of MPs in bioretention cells are described. Furthermore, the hazards of MP accumulation on the performance of bioretention cells are summarised. Future directions for removing MPs in bioretention cells are proposed: (1) research on MPs smaller than 100 µm; (2) influence of MPs aging process on bioretention cells; (3) exploration of more effective fillers to enhance their removal efficiency; (4) research on synergistic removal mechanism of MPs and other pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaolong Han
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China
| | - Jiaqing Xiong
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China.
| | - Jiajia Zhou
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China
| | - Zhenyao Wang
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China
| | - Tuanping Hu
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China
| | - Jiaxing Xu
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China
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Hu M, Sun S, Ma H, Xing B. Adsorption behaviors of microplastics from packaging materials subjected to ultraviolet irradiation and microbial colonization. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2025; 212:117517. [PMID: 39752813 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.117517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2024] [Revised: 12/11/2024] [Accepted: 12/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2025]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) in nature inevitably undergo various aging processes and may exhibit varied interfacial interactions with the coexisted contaminants. Here several discarded disposable polyethylene and polypropylene plastic packaging materials were collected and employed as the raw materials of MPs, and the effects of stimulated UV irradiation and microbial colonization on the variations of surface physicochemical characteristics, including biofilm content, oxygen-containing functional groups, oxygen/carbon ratio, hydrophilicity and surface charge properties were explored. Simultaneously, the adsorption behavior of each MPs on the representative cationic dye crystal violet (CV), as well as the influences of salinity and pH of CV solution, was investigated. The fitting results of kinetic and isotherm models indicated that the adsorption process was mainly multilayer on heterogeneous surfaces, involving hydrogen bonding, electrostatic attraction and hydrophobic interactions, which were further confirmed by FTIR spectra, pH and salinity experiments, respectively. This study elucidated the variation of surface physicochemical characteristics of MPs during natural aging processes and the possible interfacial interactions with CV, which provided theoretical information on MPs as the potential pollutant carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao Hu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'An, Shaanxi 710119, PR China
| | - Siao Sun
- Queen Mary University of London Engineering School, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'An, Shaanxi 710072, PR China
| | - Hongzhu Ma
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'An, Shaanxi 710119, PR China.
| | - Baoshan Xing
- Stockbridge School of Agriculture, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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3
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Zheng PC, Li R, Lai KP, Zhang XX. Biological exposure to microplastics and nanoplastics and plastic additives: impairment of glycolipid metabolism and adverse effects on metabolic diseases. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:60778-60791. [PMID: 39412714 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-35220-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 09/30/2024] [Indexed: 11/05/2024]
Abstract
Microplastics and nanoplastics (M-NPs) are widespread pollutants in the environment, posing growing risks to human health and garnering increasing concern from researchers. Due to their small particle size, ease of adsorption, and resistance to degradation, M-NPs can retain and migrate in the environment for long-term periods. Upon entering organisms, M-NPs have been reported to cause inflammation and oxidative stress and result in abnormalities in glycolipid metabolism. Furthermore, research suggests that exposure to M-NPs may act as a causative agent for metabolic and cardiovascular diseases such as diabetes, obesity, and atherosclerosis. This paper aims to review the consequences of exposure to M-NPs on animal and cellular glycolipid metabolism and discusses the disruption of gut microbial homeostasis and the subsequent emergence of insulin resistance. PPAR signaling pathway activation after exposure to M-NPs was found to lead to increased hepatic fat accumulation and impaired lipid metabolism. Additionally, the paper highlights how M-NPs exacerbate the progression of obesity and diabetes in patients, induce damage to vascular endothelial cells, trigger oxidative stress, and contribute to the development of atherosclerosis. Despite the growing concern, the toxicity and molecular mechanism of M-NPs on glycolipid metabolism remain understudied, and effective methods for removing plastic pollutants deposited in the body are yet to be established. These findings provide valuable insights for future research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Chen Zheng
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541100, China
| | - Rong Li
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541100, China
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Integrative Omics, Education Department of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541100, China
| | - Keng Po Lai
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541100, China
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Integrative Omics, Education Department of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541100, China
| | - Xiao Xi Zhang
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541100, China.
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Integrative Omics, Education Department of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541100, China.
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Yang J, Ji W, Li Y, Wu Y, Yao M, Wu W, Jing K, Zhang G. Adsorption behavior and quantum chemical analysis of surface functionalized polystyrene nano-plastics on gatifloxacin. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:63287-63300. [PMID: 39480581 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-35457-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 10/24/2024] [Indexed: 11/02/2024]
Abstract
In this paper, the adsorption of gatifloxacin (GAT) by three types of polystyrene nano-plastics (PSNPs), including 400 nm polystyrene (PS), amino-modified PS (PS-NH2), and carboxyl-modified PS (PS-COOH) was studied and the adsorption mechanism were assessed. Experimental findings revealed that the equilibrium adsorption capacity of PSNPs to GAT followed the order PS-NH2 > PS-COOH > PS. The adsorption was regulated by both physical and chemical mechanisms, with intra-particle and external diffusion jointly controlling the adsorption rate. The adsorption process was heterogeneous, spontaneous, and entropy-driven. Sodium chloride (NaCl), alginic acid, copper ions (Cu2+), and zinc ions (Zn2+) inhibited adsorption, with Cu2+ and Zn2+ having the strongest effect on PS-NH2. Theoretical computations indicated that π-π and electrostatic interactions dominated PS adsorption of GAT, while PS-COOH and PS-NH2 adsorbed GAT through electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonds, and van der Waals (vdW) forces. The surface electrostatic potential of PS-COOH and PS-NH2 was considerably higher than that of PS, with the maximum vdW penetration distance of GAT-PS-NH2 being 1.20 Å. This study's findings provide a theoretical foundation for the migration and synergistic removal of antibiotics, micro-plastics (MPs), and nano-plastics (NPs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Yang
- College of Civil Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, 030024, China
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Jinzhong, 030600, China
| | - Wei Ji
- College of Civil Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, 030024, China
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Jinzhong, 030600, China
| | - Yanan Li
- College of Civil Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, 030024, China.
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Jinzhong, 030600, China.
| | - Yaning Wu
- College of Civil Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, 030024, China
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Jinzhong, 030600, China
| | - Meijing Yao
- College of Civil Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, 030024, China
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Jinzhong, 030600, China
| | - Weiqin Wu
- College of Civil Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, 030024, China
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Jinzhong, 030600, China
| | - Kangjian Jing
- College of Civil Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, 030024, China
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Jinzhong, 030600, China
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Das S, M R S, Jeeva JB, Mukherjee A. Release kinetic study of microplastics from N95 face masks and consequent effects on freshwater alga Scenedesmus obliquus. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 363:142851. [PMID: 39019171 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 07/13/2024] [Indexed: 07/19/2024]
Abstract
The uncontrolled disposal of N95 face masks, widely used during the recent COVID-19 pandemic can release significant amounts of microplastics and other additives into aquatic bodies. This study aimed to: (i) to quantify and analyze the released microplastics and heavy metals from N95 face masks weathered for various time periods (24, 48, 72, 96, 120, and 144 h) and (ii) to assess the cytotoxicity potential of the leachates on a model organism, freshwater alga Scenedesmus obliquus. The mask leachates contained microplastics, polypropylene in different shapes and sizes, and heavy metals like Cu, Cd, and Zn. The leachates significantly reduced cell viability and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, antioxidant enzyme activity, and membrane damage. The effects were also accompanied by a significant drop in the photosynthetic yield. All of the examined parameters indicated a dose-response relationship, with longer leaching periods resulting in higher microplastic concentrations. Mask leachates severely damaged the structural integrity of the algal cells, as seen in scanning electron microscopy images. The findings of our study confirm that the releases from disposable N95 face masks pose a severe threat to freshwater microalgae, and the cascading effects would harm the aquatic ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soupam Das
- Centre for Nanobiotechnology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
| | - Sumaiya M R
- Sensor and Biomedical Technology, School of Electronics Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
| | - J B Jeeva
- Sensor and Biomedical Technology, School of Electronics Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
| | - Amitava Mukherjee
- Centre for Nanobiotechnology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India.
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Jiang X, Wang X, Kah M, Li M. Environmentally relevant concentrations of microplastics from agricultural mulch and cadmium negatively impact earthworms by triggering neurotoxicity and disrupting homeostasis. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 476:135158. [PMID: 39002475 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Revised: 05/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/15/2024]
Abstract
Recent research has highlighted the ecological risk posed by microplastics (MPs) from mulching film and heavy metals to soil organisms. However, most studies overlooked real environmental levels of MPs and heavy metals. To address this gap, pristine and aged polyethylene (PE) mulching film-derived MPs (PMPs, 500 mg/kg; AMPs, 500 mg/kg) were combined with cadmium (Cd, 0.5 mg/kg) to assess the acute toxicity to earthworms and investigate associated molecular mechanisms (oxidative stress, osmoregulation pressure, gut microbiota, and metabolic responses) at environmentally relevant concentrations. Compared to Cd alone and Cd + PMPs treatments (11.15 ± 4.19 items/g), Cd + AMPs treatment resulted in higher MPs bioaccumulation (23.73 ± 13.14 items/g), more severe tissue lesions, and increased cell membrane osmotic pressure in earthworms' intestines. Cd + AMPs induced neurotoxicity through elevated levels of glutamate and acetylcholinesterase. Earthworm intestines (0.98 ± 0.49 to 3.33 ± 0.37 mg/kg) exhibited significantly higher Cd content than soils (0.19 ± 0.01 to 0.51 ± 0.06 mg/kg) and casts (0.15 ± 0.01 to 0.25 ± 0.05 mg/kg), indicating PE-MPs facilitated Cd transport in earthworms' bodies. Metabolomic analysis showed Cd + AMPs exposure depleted energy and nucleotide metabolites, disrupted cell homeostasis more profoundly than Cd and Cd + PMPs treatments. Overall, co-exposure to AMPs + Cd induced more severe neurotoxicity and disruption of homeostasis in earthworm than Cd and PMPs + Cd treatments. Our study, using Cd and MPs with environmental relevance, underscores MPs' role in amplifying Cd accumulation and toxicity in earthworms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China; School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Xinwei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Melanie Kah
- School of Environment, The University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Mei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China.
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Liu L, Ma H, Xing B. Aging and adsorption behavior of PP-MPs for methylene blue and tetracycline in unitary and binary systems. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2024; 204:116521. [PMID: 38805976 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
The omnipresence of microplastics (MPs) around the world has attracted extensive attention in the past decade with more focuses on the interactions of standard MPs without additives in regular shapes and individual pollutant, whereas the actual MPs containing various additives in irregular shapes and complex pollutants are often co-occurrence in the environments. In this paper, the adsorption performance of disposable polypropylene (PP) cups-based MPs subjected to ultraviolet irradiation was investigated in unitary and binary water matrices. The surface characteristics were analyzed and the experimental data of adsorption were fitted by various kinetic and isotherm models, and the results indicated that more cracks and oxygen-containing functional groups with decreased hydrophobicity were produced with aging, and electrostatic attraction and hydrogen bonding dominated methylene blue (MB) and tetracycline (TC) capture in the individual system. Moreover, pseudo-second order kinetic model better described the adsorption processes. In the binary system, the co-existence of TC promoted MB uptake, while the presence of MB inhibited TC capture. In addition, TC adsorption was enhanced by Ca2+, maybe due to its complexation effect, while the presence of mono- and divalent inorganic salts inhibited MB capture. This research provides useful insights for the fate of PP-MPs and organic pollutants in the complex environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Liu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710119, PR China
| | - Hongzhu Ma
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710119, PR China.
| | - Baoshan Xing
- Stockbridge School of Agriculture, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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Liu X, Pu Q, Cheng Y, Wu J, Yan J, Wang Z, Wang X, Wang H, Qian Q. Comparative impact of pristine and aged microplastics with triclosan on lipid metabolism in larval zebrafish: Unveiling the regulatory role of miR-217. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 929:172580. [PMID: 38657822 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
The prevalence of microplastics (MPs), especially aged particles, interacting with contaminants like triclosan (TCS), raises concerns about their toxicological effects on aquatic life. This study focused on the impact of aged polyamide (APA) MPs and TCS on zebrafish lipid metabolism. APA MPs, with rougher surfaces and lower hydrophobicity, exhibited reduced TCS adsorption than unaged polyamide (PA) MPs. Co-exposure to PA/APA MPs and TCS resulted in higher TCS accumulation in zebrafish larvae, notably more with PA than APA. Larvae exposed to PA + TCS exhibited greater oxidative stress, disrupted lipid metabolism, and altered insulin pathway genes than those exposed to TCS. However, these negative effects were lessened in the APA + TCS group. Through miRNA-seq and miR-217 microinjection, it was revealed that PA + TCS co-exposure upregulated miR-217, linked to lipid metabolic disorders in zebrafish. Moreover, molecular docking showed stable interactions formed between PA, TCS, and the insulin signaling protein Pik3r2. This study demonstrated that PA and TCS co-exposure significantly inhibited the insulin signaling in zebrafish, triggering lipid metabolism dysregulation mediated by miR-217 upregulation, while APA and TCS co-exposure alleviated these disruptions. This research underscored the ecological and toxicological risks of aged MPs and pollutants in aquatic environments, providing crucial insights into the wider implications of MPs pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingcheng Liu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Qian Pu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Ying Cheng
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Ji Wu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Jin Yan
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Zejun Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Xuedong Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Huili Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China.
| | - Qiuhui Qian
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China.
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Yu F, Qin Q, Zhang X, Ma J. Characteristics and adsorption behavior of typical microplastics in long-term accelerated weathering simulation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2024; 26:882-890. [PMID: 38693902 DOI: 10.1039/d4em00062e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Microplastics can function as carriers in the environment, absorbing various toxins and spreading to diverse ecosystems. Toxins accumulated in microplastics have the potential to be re-released, posing a threat. In this study, two typical plastics, namely polyethylene (PE) and polystyrene (PS), along with the degradable plastic poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT), were subjected to a long-term ultraviolet alternating weathering experiment. The study investigated the variations in the weathering process and pollutant adsorption of microplastics of different particle sizes. Furthermore, the adsorption capacity of microplastics for various pollutants was assessed. The findings indicate that particle size significantly influences weathering, leading to variations in adsorption capacity. The weathered PE displays a higher adsorption capacity for azo dyes. Additionally, the adsorption capacity of PBAT for neutral red is double that of antibiotics. Importantly, the maximum adsorption capacity of PBAT for pollutants after aging is approximately 10 times greater than that of PE. Consequently, degradable plastics undergoing weathering in the natural environment may pose a higher ecological risk than traditional plastics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Yu
- College of Oceanography and Ecological Science, Shanghai Ocean University, No. 999, Huchenghuan Road, Shanghai, 201306, P. R. China
| | - Qiyu Qin
- College of Oceanography and Ecological Science, Shanghai Ocean University, No. 999, Huchenghuan Road, Shanghai, 201306, P. R. China
| | - Xiaochen Zhang
- College of Oceanography and Ecological Science, Shanghai Ocean University, No. 999, Huchenghuan Road, Shanghai, 201306, P. R. China
| | - Jie Ma
- School of Civil Engineering, Kashi University, Kashi 844000, China.
- Research Center for Environmental Functional Materials, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai, 200092, P. R. China
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