Multimethod prediction of physical parent-child aggression risk in expectant mothers and fathers with Social Information Processing theory

Does parental use of harsh discipline and punishment in response to ambiguous child situations vary by child physical abuse risk?

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

The present study investigated the extent to which fathers and mothers at high-risk and low-risk for child physical abuse (CPA) differed in their use of harsh discipline and punishment when presented ambiguous child situations (situations where differences in positive and negative valences are close to zero).

PARTICIPANTS/METHODS

High-risk for CPA parents (N = 74: fathers, n = 41; mothers, n = 33) and low-risk parents (N = 178: fathers, n = 91; mothers, n = 87) were asked to indicate their likelihood of using harsh verbal discipline (HVD), harsh physical discipline (HPD), and punishment (i.e., retributive harm separate from HVD and HPD) after viewing each of eighteen ambiguous child situations.

RESULTS

As expected, high-risk, compared to low-risk, for CPA parents were significantly (ps < 0.001) more likely to use HVD (d = 0.546), HPD (d = 0.595), and punishment (d = 0.564). Overall, fathers, relative to mothers, were significantly more likely to use HVD (d = 0.261) and HPD (d = 0.238). For punishment, however, there was no significant parental role (father, mother) difference (d = 0.136).

CONCLUSIONS

Since in everyday living situations many child behaviors are ambiguous, the findings that parents, especially high-risk for CPA parents, use harsh discipline and punishment when encountering ambiguous child situations suggest that non-contingent harsh child-related parental behaviors may be frequent in the lives of some children. The findings that parents may use non-contingent discipline and punishment suggest the need to explore whether, when these parenting behaviors occur, they increase the likelihood of negative child outcomes.

Parenting attitudes and behaviors among parents involved with the child welfare system and affected by substance use disorders

BACKGROUND

Co-occurring parental substance use and child maltreatment is a serious concern in the U.S child welfare system.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to examine parenting attitudes and practices among parents who participated in Ohio START (Sobriety, Treatment, And Reducing Trauma), a statewide initiative that provides support to families affected by co-occurring parental substance use and child maltreatment.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Study 1 involved quantitative data collected from 73 enrolled parents through pre-test and post-test telephone surveys. Study 2 (parent interviews) involved qualitative data collected through in-depth interviews with 34 enrolled parents.

METHODS

The paired-sample t-test and the McNemar test were conducted in Study 1 and thematic analysis was conducted in Study 2.

RESULTS

Quantitative analysis indicated significant improvements in parental expectations of children (t = -3.42, p = .001, Cohen's d = -0.40), parent-child family roles (t = -5.74, p < .001, Cohen's d = -0.67), and children's power and independence (t = -3.42, p = .001, Cohen's d = -0.40). Qualitative analysis revealed six themes related to changes in parenting after participation in Ohio START: (1) Being present for children, (2) Engaging in activities with children, (3) Enjoyment in providing care to children, (4) Maintaining employment for financial stability, (5) Better emotion regulation and stress management, and (6) a sense of pride.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrate positive changes in parenting attitudes and practices among parents who participated in Ohio START and provide further support for the potential merits of this model and its continued expansion throughout Ohio.

Social Information Processing Theory Indicators of Child Abuse Risk: Cultural Comparison of Mothers from Peru and the United States

Much of the research conducted on social information processing (SIP) factors predictive of child abuse risk has been conducted in North America, raising questions about how applicable such models may be in other cultures. Based on the premise that the parents’ child abuse risk is affected by both risk and protective factors, the current study considered how specific SIP socio-cognitive risk factors (acceptability of parent–child aggression as a discipline approach; empathic ability; frustration tolerance) as well as social support satisfaction as a resource related to child abuse risk by comparing a sample of mothers in Peru (n = 102) with a sample of mothers in the U.S. (n = 180). Using multi-group regression analyses, the current investigation identified that lower empathy was more salient for the abuse risk of U.S. mothers relative to the salience of lower frustration tolerance for Peruvian mothers. Although effects were observed for the approval of parent-aggression for the child abuse risk of both samples, such approval did not appear to be related to the Peruvian mothers’ actual use of such tactics. When considered alongside the socio-cognitive risk factors, greater social support satisfaction did not significantly relate to child abuse risk for either sample. The findings are discussed in reference to future cross-cultural work that may need to better examine how factors may or may not be universal to craft more culturally informed child abuse prevention programs.

Parental Attitudes in Child Maltreatment

An information-processing approach to maladaptive parenting suggests that high-risk and maltreating parents are likely to hold inaccurate and biased preexisting cognitive schemata about child development and child rearing. Importantly, these schemas, which may include values, beliefs, expectations, and attitudes, are known to influence the way parents perceive and subsequently act toward their children. However, the few studies specifically addressing parental attitudes only considered global maltreatment, not distinguishing abuse from neglect. Moreover, few have considered dual-process models of cognition, relying mostly on the explicit level of parental attitudes that can be prone to various biases. Based on the Social Information Processing (SIP) model of child abuse and neglect, this study examines the association of parents preexisting cognitive schemata, namely explicit and implicit parental attitudes, and child abuse and neglect. A convenience sample of 201 mothers (half with at least one child referred to child protection services) completed a measure of explicit parental attitudes and a speed-accuracy task related to parenting. Abuse and neglect were measured with self-report and professionals-report instruments. Overall, the results support the hypothesis that maladaptive parenting is related with more biased preexisting cognitive schemas, namely attitudes related to parenting, but only for neglect and particularly when reported by professionals. Moreover, the results observed with both the explicit and implicit measures of attitudes were convergent, with mothers presenting more inadequate explicit attitudes also exhibiting an overall lower performance in the implicit attitudes task. This study is likely to contribute to the SIP framework of child abuse and neglect, particularly for the elucidation of the sociocognitive factors underlying maladaptive parenting, while also providing relevant cues for prevention and intervention programs.

The role of parental emotion reactivity and regulation in child maltreatment and maltreatment risk: A meta-analytic review

The prevalence and impact of child maltreatment make the scientific investigation of this phenomenon a matter of vital importance. Prior research has examined associations between problematic patterns of parents' emotion reactivity and regulation and child maltreatment and maltreatment risk. However, the strength and specificity of these relationships is not yet clear. To address this, we conducted a systematic literature search of four databases from inception through February 2021 to identify studies that reported these relationships. Our resulting meta-analysis of maltreatment involved parents of children who are up to 18 years of age (k = 46, encompassing 6669 parents). Our focus was the magnitude of the difference in levels of emotion reactivity and regulation between parents who maltreat or are at risk of maltreating and parents who do not maltreat their children or are not at risk of maltreating their children. As expected, results from meta-analyses using robust variance estimation indicated significantly higher problems with reactivity and regulation in maltreating parents / parents at risk (r = 0.40, k = 140; 95% CI [0.34, 0.45]), indicating that maltreating / at risk parents were more likely to have overall worse measures of reactivity and regulation. In comparison to non-maltreating parents, maltreating / at risk parents experience more negative emotions, display more negative emotion behavior, and are more dysregulated. These effects were fairly stable with little to no remaining heterogeneity. The current review concludes with a theoretical framework outlining the role of emotion reactivity and regulation in multiple risk factors of maltreatment, aiming to guide future study in this area.

Feasibility of Using Child Maltreatment Measurement Instruments in the Primary Care Setting: A Systematic Review

PROBLEM

Child maltreatment is a devastating epidemic affecting millions of children and adolescents in the United States (U.S.) every year. Primary care providers (PCPs) encounter these victims but need resources to aid in the recognition of maltreatment. The purpose of this review is to evaluate child maltreatment measurement instruments and determine feasibility of use by U.S. PCPs.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

A systematic search was conducted in the PubMed, CINAHL, and PsycInfo databases from 2014 until 2020. Eligibility criteria included articles conducted in the U.S., with use of a child maltreatment measurement instrument, and subjects less than 18 years old. Eligible articles were reference searched to find the original studies for each instrument and were included if they were published in a peer-reviewed paper, could be located, and addressed the development or validation of the instrument.

SAMPLE

Of the 3816 articles, 111 used a child maltreatment measurement instrument. Sixteen of the 27 identified instruments were evaluated for feasibility using a quality rating with criteria including psychometrics, construct measurement, administration, availability, and cost.

RESULTS

Six instruments were recommended for use by PCPs.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first review evaluating the use of child maltreatment measurement instruments by PCPs and it highlights the combination of psychometric evaluation and other pertinent feasibility criteria to recommend several instruments for use by PCPs.

IMPLICATIONS

Use of these instruments by PCPs may serve to identify children and families who are at risk for or suffering from maltreatment.

The emotional tone of child descriptions during pregnancy is associated with later parenting

INTRODUCTION

How parents think and feel about their young children has implications for the parent-child relationship. We examined prospective associations between prenatal descriptions of the unborn child's personality and later parenting behavior.

METHODS

Pregnant women (N = 120; mean age = 26.16, SD = 5.71) were recruited in their third trimester for a longitudinal study. The sample is demographically diverse and predominantly economically disadvantaged. During prenatal interviews, women described their unborn child's personality, from which positive and negative emotion words were coded. Parenting behavior was coded 12 months postpartum (n = 105 for longitudinal analyses).

RESULTS

Use of positive and negative words was negatively correlated (r = -.34, p < .001). Greater use of positive words to describe the unborn child's personality was associated with higher observed sensitivity, warmth, and engagement during mother-infant interactions, whereas negative words were associated with higher interference and lower levels of sensitivity. Mothers who used anxiety- and/or anger-related words to describe their unborn child, relative to mothers who did not, demonstrated higher interference and lower warmth and sensitivity.

CONCLUSION

Descriptions of a child's personality before the child is born were associated with postnatal parenting behavior. Prenatal interventions that address negative thoughts and feelings regarding the child may be beneficial for promoting positive parenting postnatally.

A comprehensive model of women's social cognition and responsiveness to infant crying: Integrating personality, emotion, executive function, and sleep

Disparate lines of research suggest that women's (a) emotion regulation and personality, (b) executive function and (c) sleep may be important predictors of mothers' cry responding in part through their effects on social cognition. However, the extent to which each contributes to cry responding independently remains unknown. We examined this question in a convenience sample of 109 nulliparous undergraduate women. Women completed online surveys to assess personality and emotion dysregulation traits, then visited the lab for a testing session during which they reported on sleep the night before and reactions to videotapes of crying infants and completed computerized working memory and inhibitory control tasks under challenging noise conditions (exposure to traffic and cry sounds). Results indicate that women's positive personality and higher working memory were associated with higher levels of infant-oriented cry processing (i.e., accurate distress detection, empathy and situational/emotional attributions about distress), which in turn was associated with higher intended responsiveness to infant crying. Emotion dysregulation and deficits in inhibitory control were associated with higher levels of self-oriented cry processing (i.e., anger, anxiety, negative and emotion minimizing attributions in response to infant distress), which in turn was associated with lower cry responsiveness. Short-term sleep deprivation was associated with lower intended responsiveness via the above path from poorer inhibitory control to heightened self-oriented cry processing. Findings suggest that sleep, emotional and cognitive factors are associated with cry processing and subsequent responsiveness independent of one another.

Testosterone Associations With Parents' Child Abuse Risk and At-Risk Parenting: A Multimethod Longitudinal Examination

The current investigation considered salivary testosterone as a potential biomarker of physical child abuse risk. Parents enrolled in a prospective, longitudinal, multimethod study beginning prenatally provided saliva when their toddlers were 18 months old. Mothers and fathers self-reported on their empathy, frustration tolerance, and child abuse risk, as well as completing analog tasks of frustration intolerance and child abuse risk and participating in structured parent-child interactions. In contrast to mothers, fathers' higher testosterone levels were associated with increased child abuse risk, less observed positive parenting, more observed negative parenting, and an analog task of frustration intolerance; such findings were reflected across time. Further, fathers' socioeconomic status moderated the association between testosterone levels and abuse risk. No evidence of partner effects was observed in dyadic analyses. The current findings suggest that higher testosterone levels reflect an increased likelihood that paternal physically abusive behavior may be expressed.

The social information processing model in child physical abuse and neglect: A meta-analytic review

BACKGROUND

Child maltreatment has been recently examined from a cognitive-behavioral perspective. The Social Information Processing (SIP) model specifies how parental cognitions can be associated with child physical abuse and neglect and suggests that maltreating parents do not adequately respond to the child's needs due to errors/bias in the cognitive processing of child-related information.

OBJECTIVE

This study provides two separate meta-analytic reviews of research exploring the role of parents' socio-cognitive variables in shaping child physical abuse and child neglect, identifying the association of each SIP stage to these types of maltreatment.

METHOD

After a four-phase systematic literature search based in PRISMA with inter-judges' agreement, 130 effect sizes were extracted from the 51 studies selected.

RESULTS

Overall, the effect sizes of the four cognitive stages of the model were significant for physical abuse and ranged from small (r = .190 for parents' interpretations of children's signals) to moderate (r = .315 for parents' perceptions of children's signals). Regarding neglect, only the overall effect of parent's preexisting schemata was significant but small in magnitude (r = .231).

CONCLUSIONS

The results of these multilevel meta-analyses support the general hypothesis that physically abusive parents may incur in biases in processing child-related information, but further research is still required regarding neglect. Theoretically this work is likely to provide a more solid framework to understand parental cognitions underlying child maltreatment with potential implications for evaluation and intervention with maltreating or at-risk parents.

Refining social-information processing theory: Predicting maternal and paternal parent-child aggression risk longitudinally

BACKGROUND

Clarifying the pathways leading parents to engage in parent-child aggression (PCA) would benefit child abuse prevention efforts during the perinatal period.

OBJECTIVE

The present investigation empirically tested whether a social information processing (SIP) model could predict PCA risk from factors assessed in new mothers and fathers.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

This study recruited a diverse sample of 201 primiparous mothers in the last trimester of their pregnancy along with 151 fathers.

METHODS

Using a prospective longitudinal study, the hypothesized SIP model was refined statistically using SIP factors measured prenatally to predict PCA risk when their children were 18 months. This refined model was then validated with SIP factors assessed when infants were 6 months to predict PCA risk when toddlers were 18 months.

RESULTS

In general, findings indicated poor empathy related to greater overreactivity and more negative child behavior attributions. Moreover, approval of PCA use, negative child attributions, less knowledge of non-physical discipline alternatives, and higher child compliance expectations predicted subsequent PCA risk. The proposed SIP model for mothers demonstrated considerable stability. Although SIP processes predicted paternal risk, several SIP relations changed over time for fathers.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest comprehensive theoretical models like SIP theory can guide the specific processes to target for prevention and clarify how processes may be interconnected. SIP processes appear relevant and relatively stable targets for prevention and early intervention, particularly for mothers. SIP processes were applicable for fathers although the model was less consistent, suggesting work in examining paternal PCA risk remains an important research direction.

Gender role ideology in mothers and fathers: Relation with parent-child aggression risk longitudinally

BACKGROUND

The existing literature is dominated by models of parent-child aggression (PCA) risk using maternal samples, thereby limiting insight into factors that contribute to fathers' PCA risk. Protective factors that can affect PCA risk within the mother-father dyad at the cultural level are also often overlooked.

OBJECTIVE

The current study examined the potential positive role of gender ideologies on maternal and paternal PCA risk over time, considering both individual and partner effects on PCA risk.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Participants were 150 couples, with primiparous mothers and their male partners identified from a larger study of PCA risk.

METHODS

The study employed a longitudinal design with three waves. Participants were first assessed in mothers' third trimester of pregnancy and re-assessed when their child was 6 months and 18 months. Dyads reported their gender role attitudes prenatally and PCA risk across time.

RESULTS

Egalitarian gender role ideologies related to lower PCA risk for both mothers and fathers prenatally. At 6 months, neither mothers' nor fathers' gender role ideologies related to PCA risk but by 18 months, fathers' gender role beliefs predicted their PCA risk whereas mother's gender role beliefs only marginally predicted their PCA risk. Maternal egalitarian gender ideologies significantly predicted fathers' lower PCA risk at 6 months.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest less traditional gender roles may contribute to lower PCA risk in parents particularly prior to childbirth. Therefore, future work is needed to further consider the evolving interconnectedness within couples in their PCA risk over time.

Psychometric Evaluation of a Brief Assessment of Parents' Disciplinary Alternatives

OBJECTIVES

The majority of strategies designed to assess parental discipline practices typically focus on ineffective or adverse discipline options. When more comprehensive measures are utilized, parents are often expressly asked to report their use of nonphysical discipline options but such an approach signals to parents that they should report implementing such choices, thereby rendering it susceptible to social desirability.

METHODS

Rather than cueing parents with possible discipline options, the Production of Discipline Alternatives (PDA) is a very brief parent-report coding scheme of the discipline options parents freely generate to an open-ended question after reading a short vignette. The current study investigated the inter-rater reliability and stability as well as concurrent and predictive validity from the coding of this brief qualitative prompt using three waves of longitudinal data collected from mothers and fathers (prenatally, child age 6 months, and child age 18 months).

RESULTS

Findings demonstrated strong inter-rater reliability (between independent coders) and stability of discipline alternatives provided by parents across nearly two years. Concurrent and predictive validity were also observed; specifically, mothers and fathers who generated proportionally more physical discipline options were more likely to approve of physical discipline, to be inclined to punish perceived misbehavior, to prefer authoritarian parenting approaches, to evidence greater child abuse risk, and to report more frequent use of physical discipline.

CONCLUSIONS

The current findings imply the PDA may have research utility as well as potential value in screenings at primary and integrated care settings relevant for prevention and intervention efforts.

Predicting Maternal and Paternal Parent-Child Aggression Risk: Longitudinal Multimethod Investigation using Social Information Processing Theory

OBJECTIVE

Given the costly outcomes associated with the physical abuse and harsh discipline of children, identifying pathways leading parents to engage in parent-child aggression (PCA) are critical to prevention and intervention efforts. One model that attempts to identify the processes involved in increasing parents' risk is an adaptation of Social Information Processing (SIP) theory. The current study investigated whether elements of SIP theory assessed prenatally can predict later PCA risk in a diverse sample of mothers and fathers.

METHOD

This evaluation controlled for parents' current level of personal vulnerabilities (psychopathology, substance use, domestic violence) or resiliencies (social support, partner satisfaction, coping) to determine the predictive value of the SIP processes in particular. This study used a multimethod approach that included several analog tasks. Dyadic analyses were conducted to contrast 196 mothers and their partners who were enrolled prenatally and then re-assessed when their infants were 6 months old.

RESULTS

Findings indicate that poor empathy assessed prenatally was associated with greater overreactivity and more negative attributions regarding children's behavior which in turn predicted later PCA risk. Moreover, attitudes approving the use of PCA predicted later PCA risk largely due to its connection with negative child attributions, less knowledge of non-physical discipline alternatives, and higher compliance expectations.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that elements of the SIP theory can be identified prenatally to estimate later risk of PCA, with some differences in profiles between mothers and fathers. Future directions for evaluating the SIP model and its implications for prevention and intervention are discussed.

Assessing Parental Attributions through an Implicit Measure: Development and Evaluation of the Noncompliance IAT

OBJECTIVES

Assessing parental attributions can be challenging given the reticence of some caregivers to report information that may be considered controversial or pejorative. To address this issue, recent efforts have focused on expanding existing parenting assessment batteries to include implicit measures. One of the most common methods for implicit assessment, the Implicit Association Test (IAT), had not yet been adapted to assess parental attributions. Two studies evaluated the psychometric properties (including convergent, concurrent, incremental, and predictive validity) of the novel Noncompliance IAT (N-IAT).

METHODS

Study 1 included a low-risk sample of mothers (N = 60) of preschoolers. Study 2 included a diverse and higher risk sample of mothers and fathers who were assessed at three time points: immediately before the birth of their first child (N = 202 women; N = 144 male partners) and then 6 and 18 months after the birth.

RESULTS

Findings from both studies supported the utility of the N-IAT as a measure of implicit parental attributions. The N-IAT demonstrated evidence of convergent and concurrent validity (e.g., significant correlations with explicit attribution measures and with measures of parenting) in both studies. The longitudinal design of Study 2 allowed for the evaluation of incremental and predictive validity; N-IAT scores before childbirth predicted later N-IAT scores, with indications that the N-IAT could demonstrate incremental validity related to child abuse risk. Study 2 also demonstrated moderate test stability for mothers and fathers.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that the N-IAT may be a helpful adjunct to assessments of parental attribution.

Predicting Child Problem Behavior and Maternal/Paternal Parent-Child Aggression: Identifying Early Prevention Targets

Parental socio-cognitive factors may predict their physical discipline use as well as their perceptions of children's problem behavior; infant temperament may also influence parents' discipline use. Using a bidirectional approach, the current study investigated whether attitudes approving of parent-child aggression (PCA), negative child behavior attributions, knowledge of nonphysical discipline options, and infant temperament predicted 186 mothers' and 146 fathers' PCA use and child problem behaviors one year later. Findings indicated mothers who approved of PCA use and held negative child attributions were more likely to report greater subsequent PCA use; less knowledge of nonphysical discipline options predicted more perceived problem behaviors one year later. Fathers were more likely to engage in PCA with toddlers if they had less knowledge of nonphysical discipline options but also if they viewed their infants as active. Contributors to mothers' and fathers' PCA use and implications for prevention efforts and children's outcomes are considered.

Predictors of change in mothers' and fathers' parent-child aggression risk

Parents' cognitive schemas about parenting, personal vulnerabilities, and personal resources may affect their risk of engaging in parent-child aggression (PCA). This longitudinal study examined predictors of change in mothers' and fathers' PCA risk across the transition to parenthood, comparing trajectories of parents evidencing high versus low sociodemographic risk. Potential predictors involved parenting-relevant schemas (consistent with Social Information Processing theory, including approval of PCA, negative attributions of child behavior, and knowledge of nonphysical discipline options), personal vulnerabilities (psychopathology, intimate partner violence, substance use issues), and resources (problem-focused coping, emotion regulation, social support, and partner satisfaction). Results indicated that increases in PCA approval, negative child behavior attributions, and symptoms of psychopathology, as well as decreases in problem-focused coping skills, emotion regulation ability, and partner satisfaction, all significantly predicted changes in mothers' and fathers' PCA risk over time-regardless of risk group status. Notably, increases in intimate partner violence victimization and decreases in social support satisfaction predicted mothers' but not fathers' PCA risk change; moreover, increases in knowledge of nonphysical discipline alternatives or in substance use issues did not predict change in PCA risk for either mothers or fathers. Risk groups differed in PCA risk across all predictors with minimal evidence of differential trajectories. Overall, these findings have important implications for child abuse prevention programs involving both universal and secondary abuse prevention efforts.

Empathy in pregnant women and new mothers: a systematic literature review

OBJECTIVE

This systematic review explores changes in perinatal empathy and influence on maternal behaviours and child development.

BACKGROUND

The well-being and development of infants are commonly linked to their mothers' capacity for empathy. However, characteristic changes during pregnancy and childbirth including sleep deprivation, mood and cognitive difficulties may disrupt empathic processing.

METHODS

Original research papers (n = 7413) published in English language peer-reviewed academic journals were obtained by searching four electronic databases PsycINFO, PubMed, Scopus and CINAHL. Inclusion criteria were studies reporting empathy of women in the period from pregnancy to 12 months postpartum. Empathy was operationalised as a general tendency of empathic emotional responding and cognitive perspective taking. Thirteen studies were systematically assessed using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme criteria.

RESULTS

Impaired empathy in mothers, due most notably to high personal distress, was associated with risk of neglect or maltreatment of children and was partially explained by mothers' aversive response to infant crying.

CONCLUSION

Few studies present empathy as a central theme. There is a paucity of definitional parameters and theoretical linkages and over-reliance on brief self-report indices of empathy. Future studies need to be theory based, incorporate experimental approaches, and provide greater sampling diversity toadvance our understanding of empathy in perinatal women.

Parents' perception of child behavior, parenting stress, and child abuse potential: Individual and partner influences

Based on the Social Information Processing model of parenting risk for child abuse, the present study examined the associations between mothers' and fathers' perception of child behavior and child abuse potential, as well as whether parenting stress mediates the association between these constructs. Two hundred and fifty-nine mother-father couples raising preschool children answered the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), the Parenting Stress Index (PSI), and the Child Abuse Potential Inventory (CAPI). The results of dyadic path analysis showed that perception of child behavior was related to heightened parenting stress and abuse potential in both mothers and fathers. Concerning partner effects, we found that mothers' perception of child behavior problems was positively associated with fathers' parenting stress and that the higher the mothers' distress, the higher the fathers' risk of physical abuse. Finally, parenting distress partially mediated the association between parents' perception of child behavior and child abuse potential, with mothers' perception of their children as problematic showing a significant indirect effect through distress on their own abuse risk and on fathers' CAP as well. These findings suggest that parental distress may represent a critical mechanism by which parents' negative views of their children contribute to abuse potential. Moreover, mothers seem to influence fathers' tendency towards abusive behaviors.

Disentangling the Cycle: Potential Mediators and Moderators in the Intergenerational Transmission of Parent-Child Aggression

Although a cycle of harsh and abusive parenting has been recognized for decades, this cycle is not inevitable. Indeed, the mechanisms underlying such patterns, and the resources parents may access to disrupt this cycle, require further study. Research investigating those processes has either relied on cross-sectional designs or largely assessed mediators or moderators at one time point. The current investigation of parent-child aggression (PCA) risk utilized a longitudinal design to consider possible mediators and moderators across three time points. Mothers and fathers reported on their personal history of physical and psychological abuse during the last trimester of the mother's pregnancy; their PCA risk was assessed concurrently when their child was 6 months and when their child was 18 months. Current findings support several mediators for mothers, although fewer for fathers, prenatally, but mediation was not observed across time. Similarly, several moderators of the effect of personal history of physical and psychological aggression on PCA risk were identified prenatally but not across time. Thus, several qualities believed to account for, or mitigate, the intergenerational transmission of PCA may not be consistent-underscoring the continued need to identify factors that account for the cyclical process versus what may interrupt intergenerational transmission.

Individual and contextual factors for the child abuse potential of Croatian mothers: The role of social support in times of economic hardship

The study assessed mothers' risk for abusing their children in middle adolescence in relation to individual and contextual factors during the economic crisis in Croatia. Socioeconomic status of mothers, family economic pressure, and mothers' exposure to stress were measured. Special attention was given to the perceived availability of social support as one of protective factors potentially buffering the negative impact of risks of child abuse. The community sample included 746 mothers (Mage = 42.85; SDage = 5.319). The results showed that the risk of child abuse is higher for mothers with lower education, those who perceive themselves as suffering greater family economic hardship, those who have experienced a higher number of stressful events, and those with lower social support. When the mothers perceive a lower availability of social support, the effects of exposure to cumulative risk, namely the combination of socioeconomic status, economic pressure, and exposure to stress, are stronger. Since social support proved to be one of the key protective factors in the relationship between adverse life circumstances and parenting, the development of effective and non-stigmatized interventions aiming to increase social support, positive social relationships, and adequate parenting practices for parents facing economic hardship is an important direction for future family policy measures.

Disciplinary Practices, Metaparenting, and the Quality of Parent-Child Relationships in African-American, Mexican-American, and European-American Mothers

Coercive responses to children's behavior are well recognized to be problematic for children's adjustment. Less well understood is how parental social cognition is linked to discipline. In this study we sought to link metaparenting - parents' thoughts about their parenting - to the use of coercive discipline. We predicted that mothers who engaged in more metaparenting, thus reflecting more deliberate parenting, would use corporal punishment less frequently and instead engage in non-coercive discipline. We also expected that mothers who engaged in more metaparenting would report closer relationships with their children. In order to assess a diverse sample, data were collected from approximately equal numbers of African-American, European-American, and Mexican-American mothers. Participants included 113 mothers with target children in three age groups, ranging from 2 to 12 years. The results indicated reports of corporal punishment as well as non-coercive discipline did not significantly differ across child sex and child age groups, but did differ significantly across race/ethnicity. Reports of frequency of metaparenting also differed across racial/ethnic groups; African-American mothers reported more metaparenting than European-American mothers on three of four subscales. Metaparenting was significantly related to reports of the mother-child relationship but in the opposite direction than predicted. Based on these results, future research directions linking parental social cognition to discipline are proposed.

A Policy Guide on Integrated Care (PGIC): Lessons Learned from EU Project INTEGRATE and Beyond

Efforts are underway in many European countries to channel efforts into creating improved integrated health and social care services. But most countries lack a strategic plan that is sustainable over time, and that reflects a comprehensive systems perspective. The Policy Guide on Integrated Care (PGIC) as presented in this paper resulted from experiences with the EU Project INTEGRATE and our own work with healthcare reform for patients with chronic conditions at the national and international level. This project is one of the largest EU funded projects on Integrated Care, conducted over a four-year period (2012–2016) and included partners from nine European countries. Project Integrate aimed to gain insights into the leadership, management and delivery of integrated care to support European care systems to respond to the challenges of ageing populations and the rise of people living with long-term conditions. The objective of this paper is to describe the PGIC as both a tool and a reasoning flow that aims at supporting policy makers at the national and international level with the development and implementation of integrated care. Any Policy Guide on Integrated should build upon three building blocks, being a mission, vision and a strategy that aim at capturing the large amount of factors that directly or indirectly influence the successful development of integrated care.

Personal and couple level risk factors: Maternal and paternal parent-child aggression risk

Previous literature examining parent-child aggression (PCA) risk has relied heavily upon mothers, limiting our understanding of paternal risk factors. Moreover, the extent to which factors in the couple relationship work in tandem with personal vulnerabilities to impact PCA risk is unclear. The current study examined whether personal stress and distress predicted PCA risk (child abuse potential, over-reactive discipline style, harsh discipline practices) for fathers as well as mothers and whether couple functioning mediated versus moderated the relation between personal stress and PCA risk in a sample of 81 couples. Additionally, the potential for risk factors in one partner to cross over and affect their partner's PCA risk was considered. Findings indicated higher personal stress predicted elevated maternal and paternal PCA risk. Better couple functioning did not moderate this relationship but partially mediated stress and PCA risk for both mothers and fathers. In addition, maternal stress evidenced a cross-over effect, wherein mothers' personal stress linked to fathers' couple functioning. Findings support the role of stress and couple functioning in maternal and paternal PCA risk, including potential cross-over effects that warrant further inquiry.

Parent-Child Aggression Risk in Expectant Mothers and Fathers: A Multimethod Theoretical Approach

The current investigation evaluated whether cognitive processes characteristic of the Social Information Processing model predicted parent-child aggression (PCA) risk independent of personal vulnerabilities and resiliencies. This study utilized a multimethod approach, including analog tasks, with a diverse sample of 203 primiparous expectant mothers and 151 of their partners. Factors considered in this study included PCA approval attitudes, empathy, reactivity, negative child attributions, compliance expectations, and knowledge of non-physical discipline alternatives; additionally, vulnerabilities included psychopathology symptoms, domestic violence victimization, and substance use, whereas resiliencies included perceived social support, partner relationship satisfaction, and coping efficacy. For both mothers and fathers, findings supported the role of greater approval of PCA attitudes, lower empathy, more overreactivity, more negative attributions, and higher compliance expectations in relation to elevated risk of PCA. Moreover, personal vulnerabilities and resiliencies related to PCA risk for mothers; however, fathers and mothers differed on the nature of these relationships with respect to vulnerabilities as well as aspects of empathy and PCA approval attitudes. Findings provide evidence for commonalities in many of the factors investigated between mothers and fathers with some notable distinctions. Results are discussed in terms of how findings could inform prevention programs.

Multimethod prediction of child abuse risk in an at-risk sample of male intimate partner violence offenders

The vast majority of research on child abuse potential has concentrated on women demonstrating varying levels of risk of perpetrating physical child abuse. In contrast, the current study considered factors predictive of physical child abuse potential in a group of 70 male intimate partner violence offenders, a group that would represent a likely high risk group. Elements of Social Information Processing theory were evaluated, including pre-existing schemas of empathy, anger, and attitudes approving of parent-child aggression considered as potential moderators of negative attributions of child behavior. To lend methodological rigor, the study also utilized multiple measures and multiple methods, including analog tasks, to predict child abuse risk. Contrary to expectations, findings did not support the role of anger independently predicting child abuse risk in this sample of men. However, preexisting beliefs approving of parent-child aggression, lower empathy, and more negative child behavior attributions independently predicted abuse potential; in addition, greater anger, poorer empathy, and more favorable attitudes toward parent-child aggression also exacerbated men's negative child attributions to further elevate their child abuse risk. Future work is encouraged to consider how factors commonly considered in women parallel or diverge from those observed to elevate child abuse risk in men of varying levels of risk.