Mechanism of action of protopanaxadiol ginsenosides on hepatocellular carcinoma and network pharmacological analysis

Oxocrebanine inhibits the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma cells by promoting apoptosis and autophagy

BACKGROUND

Finding active lead anti-hepatocellular carcinoma compounds from traditional Chinese medicine has important research value.

AIM

To assess the detailed mechanism of oxocrebanine, a compound separated from the traditional Chinese medicinal plant Stephania hainanensis H.S. Lo et Y. Tsoong, and to evaluate its inhibition of the proliferation of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells via apoptosis and autophagy.

METHODS

MTT, BrdU labeling, and colony formation assays were used to assess the inhibitory effect of oxocrebanine on the growth and proliferation of human hepatocellular carcinoma Hep3B2.1-7 cells. Flow cytometry was used to detect the effect of oxocrebanine on the apoptosis of Hep3B2.1-7 cells. Western blotting was used to assess the expression of apoptosis-related proteins in Hep3B2.1-7 cells. The aforementioned methods were also used to evaluate the effects of oxocrebanine on cell proliferation, autophagy markers, and autophagy-related protein expression levels after adding autophagy inhibitor 3-mA. Furthermore, to verify the anti-hepatocellular carcinoma effect of oxocrebanine in vivo, a nude mouse model was used to investigate the inhibitory effect of oxocrebanine treatment and its mechanism. Apoptosis was detected using a TUNEL assay and the expression of microtubule-associated protein 1 LC3 in tumor specimens was assessed using immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Oxocrebanine effectively inhibited the growth of Hep3B2.1-7 cells, whilst upregulating the protein expression of cleaved caspase-3, downregulating poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 protein expression, increasing the levels of Bax and Bcl-2 antagonist/killer 1 protein expression, and decreasing the levels of Bcl-2 and myeloid cell leukemia 1 protein expression, which could promote apoptosis in Hep3B2.1-7 cells. Oxocrebanine promoted the transformation of LC3-I to LC3-II in Hep3B2.1-7 cells, suggesting the occurrence of autophagy, whilst the autophagy inhibitor 3-MA could reverse this process. Oxocrebanine was also shown to reduce the phosphorylation levels of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4EBP1 and ribosomal protein S6 kinase B1 (P70S6K), two downstream effector molecules in the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, inducing autophagy in Hep3B2.1-7 cells. Moreover, the tumor-bearing nude mouse experiment indicated that oxocrebanine effectively inhibited the growth of Hep3B2.1-7 cells in vivo. The results of the TUNEL assay and immunohistochemistry also revealed that oxocrebanine induced apoptosis in vivo and increased the expression level of LC3, an autophagy marker.

CONCLUSION

Oxocrebanine can inhibit the proliferation of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells by promoting apoptosis and inducing autophagy in vitro and in vivo.

Hepatocellular carcinoma: pathogenesis, molecular mechanisms, and treatment advances

Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC), a highly prevalent malignancy, poses a significant global health challenge. Its pathogenesis is intricate and multifactorial, involving a complex interplay of environmental and genetic factors. Viral hepatitis, excessive alcohol consumption, and cirrhosis are known to significantly elevate the risk of developing HCC. The underlying biological processes driving HCC are equally complex, encompassing aberrant activation of molecular signaling pathways, dysregulation of hepatocellular differentiation and angiogenesis, and immune dysfunction. This review delves into the multifaceted nature of HCC, exploring its etiology and the intricate molecular signaling pathways involved in its development. We examine the role of immune dysregulation in HCC progression and discuss the potential of emerging therapeutic strategies, including immune-targeted therapy and tumor-associated macrophage interventions. Additionally, we explore the potential of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) monomers in inhibiting tumor growth. By elucidating the complex interplay of factors contributing to HCC, this review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the disease and highlight promising avenues for future research and therapeutic development.

Ginsenoside Rg3 Improved Age-Related Macular Degeneration Through Inhibiting ROS-Mediated Mitochondrion-Dependent Apoptosis In Vivo and In Vitro

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is marked by a progressive loss of central vision and is the third leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. The exact mechanisms driving the progression of this macular degenerative condition remain elusive, and as of now, there are no available preventative measures for dry AMD. According to ancient records, ginseng affects the eyes by brightening them and enhancing wisdom. Modern pharmacological research shows that the active ingredients in ginseng, ginsenosides, may be used to prevent or improve eye diseases that threaten vision. Some articles have reported that ginsenoside Rg3 can treat diabetic retinopathy in mice, but no reports exist on its effects and mechanisms in AMD. Therefore, the role and mechanism of ginsenoside Rg3 in AMD warrant further study. This study aims to investigate the effects of Rg3 on AMD and its underlying molecular mechanisms. We established a mouse model of AMD to examine the impact of ginsenoside Rg3 on NaIO3-induced apoptosis in the retina and to explore the related intrinsic mechanisms. The in vivo results indicated that ginsenoside Rg3 prevents NaIO3-induced apoptosis in retinal pigment epithelial cells by inhibiting reactive oxygen species production and preventing the reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential. Additionally, we assessed the levels of protein expression within the apoptosis pathway. Ginsenoside Rg3 decreased the expression of Bax, cleaved caspase-3, and cleaved caspase-9 proteins. Additionally, it increased the expression of Bcl-2 by decreasing P-JNK levels. Moreover, our in vivo results showed that ginsenoside Rg3 enhanced retinal structure, increased the relative thickness of the retina, and decreased the extent of disorganization in both the inner and outer nuclear layers. Ginsenoside Rg3 may safeguard the retina against NaIO3-induced cell apoptosis by attenuating reactive-oxygen-species-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction, in which the JNK signaling pathway is also involved. These findings suggest that ginsenoside Rg3 has the potential to prevent or attenuate the progression of AMD and other retinal pathologies associated with NaIO3-mediated apoptosis.