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Dutt M, Arigò A, Famiglini G, Zappia G, Palma P, Cappiello A. Exploring Negative Chemical Ionization of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances via a Liquid Electron Ionization LC-MS Interface. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2024; 35:890-901. [PMID: 38587900 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.3c00432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a class of aliphatic manufactured compounds comprising fluoro-chemicals with varied functional groups and stable carbon-fluorine bonds. They are defined as "forever chemicals" due to their persistent and bioaccumulative character. These substances have been detected in various environmental samples, including water, air, soil, and human blood, posing significant health hazards. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS) is typically employed for the analysis of PFASs. Negative chemical ionization (NCI) is generally coupled to gas chromatography (GC) and offers high selectivity and sensitivity for compounds containing electronegative atoms, such as PFASs. The liquid electron ionization (LEI) interface is an efficient mechanism developed to robustly couple a liquid flow rate from an LC system to an EI or a CI source. This interface has been successfully utilized for pesticide determination in UHPLC-LEI-CI in negative ion mode (NCI). This work aims to evaluate different parameters involved in the ionization of PFASs analyzed in LC-LEI-NCI and subsequently develop a method for their detection in real samples. The parameters considered for this study include (i) a comparison of different CI reagent gases (methane, isobutane, and argon); (ii) the use of acetonitrile as both the chromatographic solvent and CI reagent gas; (iii) the presence of water and formic acid as chromatographic mobile phase components; and (iv) the mobile phase flow rate. The optimal combination of these parameters led to promising results. Tentative fragmentation pathways of PFASs in NCI mode are proposed based on the dissociative electron capture mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malvika Dutt
- DiSPeA Department, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Piazza Rinascimento, 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
| | - Adriana Arigò
- DiSPeA Department, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Piazza Rinascimento, 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
| | - Giorgio Famiglini
- DiSPeA Department, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Piazza Rinascimento, 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
| | - Giovanni Zappia
- San Raffaele University of Rome, via di Val Cannuta, 247 00166 Rome, Italy
- UMOLSYSTEM Srl, Piazza Rinascimento, 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
| | - Pierangela Palma
- DiSPeA Department, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Piazza Rinascimento, 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
- Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC V9R 5S5, Canada
| | - Achille Cappiello
- DiSPeA Department, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Piazza Rinascimento, 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
- Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC V9R 5S5, Canada
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Jia S, Marques Dos Santos M, Li C, Snyder SA. Recent advances in mass spectrometry analytical techniques for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Anal Bioanal Chem 2022; 414:2795-2807. [PMID: 35132477 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-022-03905-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 01/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The ubiquitous presence of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in various environments has led to increasing concern, and these chemicals have been confirmed as global contaminants. Following the chemical regulatory restrictions imposed, PFAS alternatives that are presumed to be less toxic have been manufactured to replace the traditional ones in the market. However, owing to the original release and alternative usage, continuous accumulation of PFAS has been reported in environmental and human samples, with uncertain consequences for ecosystem and human health. It is crucial to promote and improve existing analytical techniques to facilitate the detection of trace amounts of PFAS in diverse environmental matrices. This review summarizes analytical methods that have been applied to and advanced for targeted detection and suspect screening of PFAS, which mainly include (i) sampling and sample preparation methods for various environment matrices and organisms, and quality assurance/quality control during the analysis process, and (ii) quantitative methods for targeted analysis and automated suspect screening strategies for non-targeted PFAS analysis, together with their applications, advantages, shortcomings, and need for new method development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shenglan Jia
- Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute (NEWRI), Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore, 637141, Singapore
| | - Mauricius Marques Dos Santos
- Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute (NEWRI), Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore, 637141, Singapore
| | - Caixia Li
- Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute (NEWRI), Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore, 637141, Singapore
| | - Shane A Snyder
- Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute (NEWRI), Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore, 637141, Singapore.
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Dhore R, Murthy GS. Per/polyfluoroalkyl substances production, applications and environmental impacts. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2021; 341:125808. [PMID: 34455249 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The per/polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are growing contaminants which are extremely difficult to get degraded naturally. PFAS have been produced for nearly a century using electrochemical flourination and more relomerization processes. High chemical resistance, hydrophobicity, lipophobicity, heat resistace, extremly low friction coefficient make this class of chemicals invaluable for many applications. These same properties useful unfortunately make them 'forever chemicals' once released into the envrironment. This review focuses on the production and applications of PFAs, determining the concentration of PFAs in environmental and biological matrices and their efficient degradation. Various methods of detection of PFAS have been developed but insitu methods of detction are still in the early stages of development. Current chemical and biological remediation technologies are expensive/not effective and thus new remediation technolgies must be developed. It is imperative to focus on methods for detection of the short chain PFAS with their projected increased use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raveena Dhore
- Discipline of Biosciences and Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology-Indore, Khandwa Road, Simrol, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 453552, India
| | - Ganti S Murthy
- Discipline of Biosciences and Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology-Indore, Khandwa Road, Simrol, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 453552, India.
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Pilli S, Pandey AK, Pandey V, Pandey K, Muddam T, Thirunagari BK, Thota ST, Varjani S, Tyagi RD. Detection and removal of poly and perfluoroalkyl polluting substances for sustainable environment. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 297:113336. [PMID: 34325368 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
PFAs (poly and perfluoroalkyl compounds) are hazardous and bioaccumulative chemicals that do not readily biodegrade or neutralize under normal environmental conditions. They have various industrial, commercial, domestic and defence applications. According to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, there are around 4700 PFAs registered to date. They are present in every stream of life, and they are often emerging and are even difficult to be detected by the standard chemical methods. This review aims to focus on the sources of various PFAs and the toxicities they impose on the environment and especially on humankind. Drinking water, food packaging, industrial areas and commercial household products are the primary PFAs sources. Some of the well-known treatment methods for remediation of PFAs presented in the literature are activated carbon, filtration, reverse osmosis, nano filtration, oxidation processes etc. The crucial stage of handling the PFAs occurs in determining and analysing the type of PFA and its remedy. This paper provides a state-of-the-art review of determination & tools, and techniques for remediation of PFAs in the environment. Improving new treatment methodologies that are economical and sustainable are essential for excluding the PFAs from the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sridhar Pilli
- Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Warangal, Fathimanagar, Telangana, 506004, India.
| | - Ashutosh Kumar Pandey
- Centre for Energy and Environmental Sustainability-India, Lucknow, 226 029, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Vivek Pandey
- Department of Geography, Allahabad Degree College (A.D.C.), Allahabad University, Prayagraj, 211003, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Kritika Pandey
- Department of Biotechnology, Dr. Ambedkar Institute of Technology for Handicapped, Kanpur, 208024, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Tulasiram Muddam
- Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Warangal, Fathimanagar, Telangana, 506004, India
| | - Baby Keerthi Thirunagari
- Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Warangal, Fathimanagar, Telangana, 506004, India
| | - Sai Teja Thota
- Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Warangal, Fathimanagar, Telangana, 506004, India
| | - Sunita Varjani
- Gujarat Pollution Control Board, Gandhinagar, 382 010, Gujarat, India.
| | - Rajeshwar Dayal Tyagi
- Chief Scientific Officer, BOSK Bioproducts, 399 Rue Jacquard, Suite 100, Quebec, Canada
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Trends and perspectives in per-and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs) determination: Faster and broader. Trends Analyt Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2020.116114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Stróżyńska M, H Gross J, Schuhen K. Structural investigation of perfluorocarboxylic acid derivatives formed in the reaction with N,N-dimethylformamide dialkylacetals. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY (CHICHESTER, ENGLAND) 2020; 26:131-143. [PMID: 31594396 DOI: 10.1177/1469066719880546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A structural investigation of perfluorocarboxylic acid derivatives formed in the reaction with N,N-dimethylformamide dialkylacetals employing several techniques of mass spectrometry (MS) is described. Two derivatizing reagents, dimethylformamide dimethyl acetal (DMF-DMA) and dimethylformamide diethylacetal (DMF-DEA) were used. In contrast to carboxylic acids, perfluorocarboxylic acids are not able to form alkyl esters as the main product in this reaction. We found that perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) forms a salt with N,N-dimethylformamide dialkylacetals. This salt undergoes a further reaction inside the injection block of a gas chromatograph (GC) by loss of CO2 and then forms 1,1-perfluorooctane-(N,N,N,N-tetramethyl)-diamine. The GC-MS experiments using both electron ionization (EI) and positive-ion chemical ionization (PCI) revealed that the same reaction products are formed with either derivatizing reagent. Subjecting the perfluorocarboxylic acid derivative to electrospray ionization (ESI) and direct analysis in real time (DART), both positive- and negative-ion modes indicated that cluster ions are formed. In the positive-ion mode, this cluster ion consists of two iminium cations and one PFOA anion, while in the negative-ion mode, it comprises two PFOA anions and one cation. The salt structure was further confirmed by liquid injection field desorption/ionization (LIFDI) as well as infrared (IR) spectroscopy. We propose a simple mechanism of N,N,N',N'-tetramethylformamidinium cation formation. The structure elucidation is supported by specific fragment ions as obtained by GC-EI-MS and GC-PCI-MS analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Stróżyńska
- Wasser 3.0/abcr GmbH, Karlsruhe, Germany
- Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Koblenz-Landau, Landau in der Pfalz, Germany
| | - Jürgen H Gross
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
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Hu Z, Li Q, Xu L, Zhang W, Zhang Y. Determination of perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids in environmental water samples by dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction with GC-MS analysis. J LIQ CHROMATOGR R T 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/10826076.2020.1728311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhixiong Hu
- Key Laboratory for Deep Processing of Major Grain and Oil (Wuhan Polytechnic University), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan, China
| | - Qian Li
- Tongji School of Pharmacy, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Li Xu
- Tongji School of Pharmacy, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Weinong Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Deep Processing of Major Grain and Oil (Wuhan Polytechnic University), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yanpeng Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Deep Processing of Major Grain and Oil (Wuhan Polytechnic University), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan, China
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Ateia M, Maroli A, Tharayil N, Karanfil T. The overlooked short- and ultrashort-chain poly- and perfluorinated substances: A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 220:866-882. [PMID: 33395808 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.12.186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 12/24/2018] [Accepted: 12/26/2018] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Poly- and perfluorinated substances (PFAS) comprise more than 3000 individual compounds; nevertheless, most studies to date have focused mainly on the fate, transport and remediation of long-chain PFAS (C > 7). The main objective of this article is to provide the first critical review of the peer-reviewed studies on the analytical methods, occurrence, mobility, and treatment for ultra-short-chain PFAS (C = 2-3) and short-chain PFAS (C = 4-7). Previous studies frequently detected ultra-short-chain and short-chain PFAS in various types of aqueous environments including seas, oceans, rivers, surface/urban runoffs, drinking waters, groundwaters, rain/snow, and deep polar seas. Besides, the recent regulations and restrictions on the use of long-chain PFAS has resulted in a significant shift in the industry towards short-chain alternatives. However, our understanding of the environmental fate and remediation of these ultra-short-chain and short-chain PFAS is still fragmentary. We have also covered the handful studies involving the removal of ultra-short and short-chain PFAS and identified the future research needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Ateia
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Science, Clemson University, SC 29634, USA
| | - Amith Maroli
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Science, Clemson University, SC 29634, USA
| | - Nishanth Tharayil
- Department of Plant & Environmental Sciences, Clemson University, SC 29634, USA
| | - Tanju Karanfil
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Science, Clemson University, SC 29634, USA.
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Deng ZH, Cheng CG, Wang XL, Shi SH, Wang ML, Zhao RS. Preconcentration and Determination of Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in Water Samples by Bamboo Charcoal-Based Solid-Phase Extraction Prior to Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23040902. [PMID: 29661989 PMCID: PMC6017341 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23040902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In this work, bamboo charcoal was used as solid-phase extraction adsorbent for the enrichment of six perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in environmental water samples before liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry analysis. The specific porous structure, high specific surface area, high porosity, and stability of bamboo charcoal were characterized. Several experimental parameters which considerably affect extraction efficiency were investigated and optimized in detail. The experimental data exhibited low limits of detection (LODs) (0.01–1.15 ng/L), wide linear range (2–3 orders of magnitude and R ≥ 0.993) within the concentration range of 0.1–1000 ng/L, and good repeatability (2.7–5.0%, n = 5 intraday and 4.8–8.3%, n = 5 interday) and reproducibility (5.3–8.0%, n = 3). Bamboo charcoal was successfully used for the enrichment and determination of PFAAs in real environmental water samples. The bamboo charcoal-based solid-phase extraction coupled with liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry analysis possessed great potential in the determination of trace PFAA levels in environmental water samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ze-Hui Deng
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China;
- Key Laboratory for Applied Technology of Sophisticated Analytical Instruments of Shandong Province, Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China; (C.-G.C.); (R.-S.Z.)
| | - Chuan-Ge Cheng
- Key Laboratory for Applied Technology of Sophisticated Analytical Instruments of Shandong Province, Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China; (C.-G.C.); (R.-S.Z.)
| | - Xiao-Li Wang
- Key Laboratory for Applied Technology of Sophisticated Analytical Instruments of Shandong Province, Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China; (C.-G.C.); (R.-S.Z.)
- Correspondence: (M.-L.W.); (X.-L.W.)
| | - Shui-He Shi
- Environmental Monitoring Station of Dongming Environmental Protection Bureau, Dongming 274500, China;
| | - Ming-Lin Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China;
- Correspondence: (M.-L.W.); (X.-L.W.)
| | - Ru-Song Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Applied Technology of Sophisticated Analytical Instruments of Shandong Province, Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China; (C.-G.C.); (R.-S.Z.)
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SUN TF, XIANG L, CHEN L, XIAO T, MO CH, LI YW, CAI QY, HU GC, HE DC. Research Progresses of Determination of Perfluorinated Compounds in Environmental Water and Solid Samples. CHINESE JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/s1872-2040(17)61009-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Shafique U, Schulze S, Slawik C, Kunz S, Paschke A, Schüürmann G. Gas chromatographic determination of perfluorocarboxylic acids in aqueous samples – A tutorial review. Anal Chim Acta 2017; 949:8-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2016.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2016] [Revised: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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12
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Recent Developments and Applications of Solid Phase Microextraction (SPME) in Food and Environmental Analysis—A Review. CHROMATOGRAPHY 2015. [DOI: 10.3390/chromatography2030293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Korosi JB, Cheng W, Blais JM. Organic Pollutants in Sediment Core Archives. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-017-9541-8_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Llorca M, Farré M, Karapanagioti HK, Barceló D. Levels and fate of perfluoroalkyl substances in beached plastic pellets and sediments collected from Greece. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2014; 87:286-291. [PMID: 25172614 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2014] [Revised: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 07/20/2014] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Plastic debris damages marine wildlife and ecosystems becoming an important source of marine pollution. In addition, they can sorb, concentrate and stabilise contaminants acting as toxic carriers to the marine food web. In this context, the presence of 18 perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in plastic pellets (n=5) and beach sediment (n=9) samples widely distributed around Greek coastal areas was assessed. The results, mainly, showed the sorption of PFASs onto pellet surface from surrounding water with concentrations from method limit of quantification to 115 ng/kg for C5, C7, C8 and C10 carboxylic acids and C8 sulfonate acid. A similar pattern was found by comparing plastic pellets and sediment for the same sampling locations that could indicate a common origin of contamination in both types of samples. However, since the number of analysed samples is limited, a more comprehensive study with a higher number of samples should be performed in future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Llorca
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain; Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Girona, Spain
| | - Marinella Farré
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain.
| | | | - Damià Barceló
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain; Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Girona, Spain
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Trojanowicz M, Koc M. Recent developments in methods for analysis of perfluorinated persistent pollutants. Mikrochim Acta 2013; 180:957-971. [PMID: 23913984 PMCID: PMC3728443 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-013-1046-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are proliferated into the environment on a global scale and present in the organisms of animals and humans even in remote locations. Persistent organic pollutants of that kind therefore have stimulated substantial improvement in analytical methods. The aim of this review is to present recent achievements in PFASs determination in various matrices with different methods and its comparison to measurements of Total Organic Fluorine (TOF). Analytical methods used for PFASs determinations are dominated by chromatography, mostly in combination with mass spectrometric detection. However, HPLC may be also hyphenated with conductivity or fluorimetric detection, and gas chromatography may be combined with flame ionization or electron capture detection. The presence of a large number of PFASs species in environmental and biological samples necessitates parallel attempts to develop a total PFASs index that reflects the total content of PFASs in various matrices. Increasing attention is currently paid to the determination of branched isomers of PFASs, and their determination in food. The aim of this review is to present recent achievements in perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) determination in various matrices with different methods and its comparison to measurements of Total Organic Fluorine (TOF). Increasing attention is currently paid to the determination of branched isomers of PFASs, and their determination in food. ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Trojanowicz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland ; Institute of Nuclear Chemistry and Technology, Dorodna 16, 03-195 Warsaw, Poland
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Fast determination of perfluorocompounds in packaging by focused ultrasound solid-liquid extraction and liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2013; 1302:88-94. [PMID: 23830241 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2013.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2013] [Revised: 06/04/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
A focused ultrasound solid-liquid extraction (FUSLE) and liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometry (QTOF-MS/MS) based method is proposed to determine six perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in food-contact packaging. FUSLE, a simple, inexpensive and fast extraction technique, has been carried out with just 8mL of ethanol in one cycle of only 10s. The whole method presented good repeatability and intermediate precision, with RSDs below 11% and 15%, respectively; limits of detection, with values between 0.5ng/g and 2.2ng/g, and successful recovery values, around 100% in all cases. The developed method has been validated and applied to the analysis of real food-contact packaging samples. FUSLE results have been compared to those obtained with pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) and no significant differences between them have been found. PFAA were detected in all the packaging samples analyzed, in a concentration range between 4ng/g and 29ng/g, being PFHpA (perfluoroheptanoic acid) the most abundant of them.
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Focused ultrasound solid–liquid extraction of perfluorinated compounds from sewage sludge. Talanta 2013; 109:197-202. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2013.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2012] [Revised: 01/28/2013] [Accepted: 02/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Martínez-Moral MP, Tena MT. Determination of perfluorocompounds in popcorn packaging by pressurised liquid extraction and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Talanta 2012; 101:104-9. [PMID: 23158298 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2012.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2012] [Revised: 08/30/2012] [Accepted: 09/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The development and characterisation of a method based on reverse-phase ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) coupled to a quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometer (Q-TOF-MS) with negative electrospray ionisation (ESI) to determine perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) in packaging is presented in this paper. Analytes were quantitatively recovered from packaging with methanol in only one PLE cycle of 6 min at 100 °C. The UPLC allowed the successful separation of the studied PFCs in less than 4 min. The whole method presented good precision, with RSDs below 8%, LODs from 0.6 to 16 ng g(-1); and excellent recovery values, around 100% in all cases, were achieved. The PLE-UPLC-MS method was applied to the analysis of popcorn packaging for microwave cooking. Besides the most commonly studied PFCs: PFOA and PFOS, the presence of other perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs) in popcorn packaging is evidenced in this work.
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A rapid and sensitive assay of perfluorocarboxylic acids in aqueous matrices by headspace solid phase microextraction–gas chromatography–triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1251:160-168. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.06.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2012] [Revised: 06/04/2012] [Accepted: 06/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Determination of perfluorocarboxylic acids in water by ion-pair dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction and gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry with injection port derivatization. Anal Chim Acta 2012; 726:28-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2012.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2011] [Revised: 03/08/2012] [Accepted: 03/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Derivatization and liquid chromatography–UV–tandem mass spectrometric analysis of perfluorinated carboxylic acids. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1235:132-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.02.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2011] [Revised: 02/21/2012] [Accepted: 02/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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22
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Theobald N, Caliebe C, Gerwinski W, Hühnerfuss H, Lepom P. Occurrence of perfluorinated organic acids in the North and Baltic Seas. Part 2: distribution in sediments. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2012; 19:313-324. [PMID: 21739179 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-011-0559-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2011] [Accepted: 06/21/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The distribution of polar perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) in sea water of the North and Baltic Seas has been described in part 1 of this study. In part 2, their occurrence in sediments is described in order to further investigate their distribution routes and possible sinks. METHODS Sediments were extracted with methanol and PFCs with chain lengths of C(4) to C(10) analysed by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS Using the developed procedure, PFCs could be determined in sediments from all 15 stations which had been sampled. In most samples from the German Bight and western Baltic Sea, perfluorooctane sulphonate had the highest concentrations (0.02 to 2.4 μg/kg dry weight), followed by perfluorooctanoate at 0.06 to 1.6 μg/kg dry weight. Levels of the other PFCs were five to ten times lower. Concentrations of PFCs were similar to those of classical chlorinated hydrocarbons. The spatial distribution is strongly influenced by sediment parameters (e.g. total organic carbon (TOC)). By normalisation to TOC, regional differences were identified between the North and Baltic Sea samples. Sediment/water enrichment ratios estimated from field concentrations showed clear dependences on carbon chain length and chemical structure. Time trends of PFCs, investigated by analysing a sediment core (Skagerrak), differed clearly from those of "classical" pollutants. CONCLUSION Because of the strong influence of sediment parameters and the relatively low enrichment of PFCs in sediments, this matrix is less suited for investigating spatial distributions. Sediments should be used mainly for monitoring temporal trends, preferably using sediment cores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norbert Theobald
- Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency, Bernhard-Nocht Str. 78, 20359 Hamburg, Germany.
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Falandysz J, Rostkowski P, Jarzyńska G, Falandysz JJ, Taniyasu S, Yamashita N. Determination of perfluorinated alkylated substances in sediments and sediment core from the Gulf of Gdańsk, Baltic Sea. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART A, TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2012; 47:428-434. [PMID: 22320695 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2012.646133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Perfluorinated alkylated substances (PFAS) have been determined in surface sediments and sediment core from Gulf of Gdańsk, Baltic Sea. Perfluorooctanesulphonate (PFOS), perfluorohexanesulphonate (PFHxS), perfluorodecanoate (PFDA), perfluoronanoate (PFNA), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), perfluoroheptanoate (PFHpA), perfluoroundecanote (PFUnDA), perfluorododecanoate (PFDoDA) and perfluorohexanoate (PFHxA) were quantified after isotopic dilution ((13)C(4) PFOS and (13)C(4) PFOA), liquid-liquid extractions by methanol and acetonitrile, cleanup by Envi-Carb, OasisWAX and Envi-Carb and final measurement by HPLC-MS/MS. PFOS, PFHxS, PFUnDA, PFDA, PFNA and PFOA were found in Baltic Sea sediments in concentrations exceeding the method limit of quantification (LOQ) of 2 pg/g. PFOS was detected in concentration up to 0.896 ng/g dry weight and PFHxS up to 0.326 ng/g dw, which shows on a weak pollution. PFOS (48-74%) or PFHxS (45-56%) dominated in PFAS composition of sediments surveyed. Supplemental materials are available for this article. Go to the publisher's online edition of the Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A to view the free supplemental file.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerzy Falandysz
- Research Group of Environmental Chemistry, Ecotoxicology & Food Toxicology, Institute of Environmental Sciences & Public Health, University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland.
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Liu WL, Hwang BH, Li ZG, Jen JF, Lee MR. Headspace solid phase microextraction in-situ supercritical fluid extraction coupled to gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry for simultaneous determination of perfluorocarboxylic acids in sediments. J Chromatogr A 2011; 1218:7857-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.08.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2011] [Revised: 08/16/2011] [Accepted: 08/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Analysis of perfluorinated compounds in sewage sludge by pressurized solvent extraction followed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2011; 1218:4840-6. [PMID: 21377684 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.01.085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2010] [Revised: 01/27/2011] [Accepted: 01/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) are widely used in everyday life and one of the main recipients of these compounds is waste water treatment plants (WWTPs). Due to the structure and physicochemical properties of PFCs, these compounds could be redistributed from influent water to sludge. This work reports a new validated protocol for the analysis of 13 perfluorinated acids, 4 perfluorosulfonates and the perfluorooctanesulfonamide. The present work has been focused to develop a sensitive and robust method for the analysis of 18 PFCs in sewage sludge, based on pressurized solvent extraction (PSE) followed by solid phase extraction (SPE) clean-up, analytes separation by liquid chromatography and analysis in a hybrid quadrupole-linear ion trap mass spectrometer (LC-QLiT-MS/MS) working in single reaction monitoring (SRM) mode. The final methodology was validated using a blank sewage sludge fortified at different concentration levels. The method limits of detection were ranging in general from 15 to 79 ng/kg. These values were comparable to the decision limit (CCα) and the detection capability (CCβ), which were 17-1134 ng/kg and 18-1347 ng/kg, respectively. The percentage of recovery was from 79 to 111% in the most cases at different spiked levels. Finally, the repeatability of the method was in the range 4% (PFOS and PFOA) to 25% (RSD %). In order to evaluate the applicability of the method, 5 sludge samples were analyzed. The results showed that the 18 PFCs were present in all samples. However, the concentrations for most of them were below the limits of quantification. The compound present at higher concentrations was perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), which was in concentrations from 53.0 to 121.1 μg/kg. The other PFCs were at concentrations between 0.3 and 30.3 μg/kg.
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26
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Gosetti F, Chiuminatto U, Zampieri D, Mazzucco E, Robotti E, Calabrese G, Gennaro MC, Marengo E. Determination of perfluorochemicals in biological, environmental and food samples by an automated on-line solid phase extraction ultra high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method. J Chromatogr A 2010; 1217:7864-72. [PMID: 21071035 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2010.10.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2010] [Revised: 09/22/2010] [Accepted: 10/14/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
A rapid on-line solid phase extraction ultra high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method was developed for the identification and quantitation of nine perfluorinated compounds in matrices of environmental, biological and food interest. Pre-treatment, solid phase extraction, chromatographic and mass detection conditions were optimised, in order to apply the whole methodology to the analysis of different matrices. Particular attention was devoted to the evaluation of matrix effect and the correlated phenomena of ion enhancement or suppression in mass spectrometry detection. LOD and LOQ range from 3 to 15ngL(-1) and from 10 to 50ngL(-1), respectively. Method detection limits (MDLs) were also calculated for each kind of matrix. The recovery, evaluated for each analyte, does not depend on analyte concentration in the explored concentration range: average R¯% values are always greater than 82.9%. In the whole, the results obtained for samples of river waters, blood serum, blood plasma, and fish confirm the ubiquitous presence of perfluorinated compounds, as recently denounced by many sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Gosetti
- University of Piemonte Orientale, DISAV - Dipartimento di Scienze dell'Ambiente e della Vita, viale T. Michel 11, 15121 Alessandria, Italy.
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Ma R, Shih K. Perfluorochemicals in wastewater treatment plants and sediments in Hong Kong. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2010; 158:1354-62. [PMID: 20153098 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2010.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2009] [Revised: 12/26/2009] [Accepted: 01/10/2010] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The study reported in this paper examined the concentrations of nineteen perfluorochemicals (PFCs), including perfluoroalkyl sulfonates, carboxylates, and sulfonamides in samples collected from Hong Kong wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and sediments. The study was the first to use an external isolator column to assist in the quantification of PFCs in environmental samples without having to make internal modifications to a liquid chromatography system. Perfluorooctanesulfonate was found to be the dominant PFC pollutant in Hong Kong, and the WWTP sludge was the major sink of PFCs discharged from the urban areas. Compared to discharge influenced by industrial activities, much less perfluorooctanoate was found in waste streams. The significantly lower level of perfluorodecanesulfonate in WWTP sludge reflects the important influence of consumer products on PFC distribution. The dominance of even-chain length perfluoroalkyl carboxylates in all of the WWTP sludge samples investigated further suggests the strong aerobic degradation of fluorotelomer alcohols in WWTPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruowei Ma
- Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
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Dufková V, Čabala R, Maradová D, Štícha M. A fast derivatization procedure for gas chromatographic analysis of perfluorinated organic acids. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:8659-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.10.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2009] [Revised: 10/06/2009] [Accepted: 10/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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29
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Jahnke A, Berger U. Trace analysis of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances in various matrices—How do current methods perform? J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:410-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2008.08.098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2008] [Revised: 08/12/2008] [Accepted: 08/28/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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McMurdo CJ, Ellis DA, Webster E, Butler J, Christensen RD, Reid LK. Aerosol enrichment of the surfactant PFO and mediation of the water--air transport of gaseous PFOA. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2008; 42:3969-74. [PMID: 18589953 DOI: 10.1021/es7032026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Aerosol-mediated transport of perfluorooctanoate (PFO) from a water body to the atmosphere and the subsequent emission of gas-phase perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) was investigated. The potential for this process to facilitate long-range transport of PFOA/PFO was assessed. In a laboratory experiment, aerosols were generated and collected from deionized, fresh, and ocean waters spiked with PFO and analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Gas-phase samples were also collected from the system and analyzed for PFOA. Aerosols were found to have significantly higher concentrations of PFO than the parent water body (< or = 80 times for ocean waters). The PFOA, at equilibrium with the PFO in the aqueous aerosol, partitioned rapidly (t 1/2 = 7.2 s) out of the aerosol droplet. This suggests that rainout rates are likely to be longer than previously hypothesized. These results imply that water bodies are not a permanent sink for atmospheric PFOA as previous studies have suggested. The occurrence of contamination in remote regions may not depend solely on the previously hypothesized indirect sources but also on the long-range transport, via the gas phase, of direct releases of PFOA to both the aquatic and atmospheric environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin J McMurdo
- Department of Chemistry, Trent University, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, Ontario, K9J 7B8 Canada
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31
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van Leeuwen SPJ, de Boer J. Extraction and clean-up strategies for the analysis of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in environmental and human matrices. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1153:172-85. [PMID: 17349649 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.02.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2006] [Revised: 02/13/2007] [Accepted: 02/20/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The rapidly expanding field of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs) research has resulted in a wide range of analytical methodologies to determine the human and environmental exposure to PFASs. This paper reviews the currently applied techniques for sample pre-treatment, extraction and clean-up for the analysis of ionic and non-ionic PFASs in human and environmental matrices. Solid phase extraction (SPE) is the method of choice for liquid samples (e.g. water, blood, serum, plasma), and may be automated in an on-line set-up for (large volume) sample enrichment and sample clean-up. Prior to SPE, sample pre-treatment (filtration or centrifugation for water or protein precipitation for blood) may be required. Liquid-liquid extraction can also be used for liquid samples (and does not require above mentioned sample pretreatment). Solid-liquid extraction is the commonly applied method for solid matrices (biota, sludge, soil, sediment), but automation options are limited due to contamination from polytetrafluorethylene tubings and parts applied in extraction equipment. Air is generally preconcentrated on XAD-resins sandwiched between polyurethane foam plugs. Clean-up of crude extracts is essential for destruction and removal of lipids and other co-extractives that may interfere in the instrumental determination. SPE, (fluorous) silica column chromatography, dispersive graphitized carbon and destructive methods such as sulphuric acid or KOH treatment can be applied for clean-up of extracts. Care should be taken to avoid contamination (e.g. from sample bottles, filters, equipment) and losses of PFASs (e.g. adsorption, volatilization) during sampling, extraction and clean-up. Storage at -20 degrees C is generally appropriate for conservation of samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- S P J van Leeuwen
- Institute for Environmental Studies (IVM), Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1087, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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32
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Bagheri H, Babanezhad E, Es-haghi A. An aniline-based fiber coating for solid phase microextraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from water followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1152:168-74. [PMID: 17316658 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2006] [Revised: 01/28/2007] [Accepted: 02/02/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
A fiber coating from polyaniline (PANI) was electrochemically prepared and employed for solid phase microextraction (SPME) of some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from water samples. The PANI film was directly electrodeposited on the platinum wire surface in sulfuric acid solution using cyclic voltammetry (CV) technique. The applicability of this coating was assessed employing a laboratory-made SPME device and gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for the extraction of some PAHs from the headspace of aqueous samples. Application of wider potential range in CV led to a PANI with more stability against the temperature. The homogeneity and the porous surface structure of the film were examined by the scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The study revealed that this polymer is a suitable SPME fiber coating for extracting the selected PAHs. Important parameters influencing the extraction process were optimized and an extraction time of 40 min at 40 degrees C gave maximum peak area, when the aqueous sample was added with NaCl (20%, w/v). The synthesis of the PANI can be carried out conveniently and in a reproducible manner while it is rather inexpensive and stable against most of organic solvents. The film thickness of PANI can be precisely controlled by the number of CV cycles. The resulting thickness was roughly 20 microm after 20 cycles. At the optimum conditions, the relative standard deviation (RSD) for a double distilled water spiked with selected PAHs at ppb level were 8.80-16.8% (n = 3) and detection limits for the studied compounds were between 0.1-6 pg mL(-1). The performance of PANI was, also, compared with a commercial solid coated-based SPME fiber, carbowax/divinylbenzene (CW/DVB), under similar experimental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Habib Bagheri
- Department of Chemistry, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran.
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Higgins CP, Luthy RG. Sorption of perfluorinated surfactants on sediments. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2006; 40:7251-6. [PMID: 17180974 DOI: 10.1021/es061000n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 860] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The sorption of anionic perfluorochemical (PFC) surfactants of varying chain lengths to sediments was investigated using natural sediments of varying iron oxide and organic carbon content. Three classes of PFC surfactants were evaluated for sorptive potential: perfluorocarboxylates, perfluorosulfonates, and perfluorooctyl sulfonamide acetic acids. PFC surfactant sorption was influenced by both sediment-specific and solution-specific parameters. Sediment organic carbon, rather than sediment iron oxide content, was the dominant sediment-parameter affecting sorption, indicating the importance of hydrophobic interactions. However, sorption also increased with increasing solution [Ca2+] and decreasing pH, suggesting that electrostatic interactions play a role. Perfluorocarbon chain length was the dominant structural feature influencing sorption, with each CF2 moiety contributing 0.50-0.60 log units to the measured distribution coefficients. The sulfonate moiety contributed an additional 0.23 log units to the measured distribution coefficient, when compared to carboxylate analogs. In addition, the perfluorooctyl sulfonamide acetic acids demonstrated substantially stronger sorption than perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). These data should prove useful for modeling the environmental fate of this class of contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher P Higgins
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-4020, USA
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Schantz MM. Pressurized liquid extraction in environmental analysis. Anal Bioanal Chem 2006; 386:1043-7. [PMID: 16896622 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-006-0648-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2006] [Revised: 06/19/2006] [Accepted: 06/21/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A critical evaluation of recent literature utilizing pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) for environmental analysis is presented by compound class. Overall, the extraction efficiency of PLE, using the appropriate solvent, temperature and pressure for extraction, is similar to that of Soxhlet extraction. PLE has been used for some classes of compounds that are thermally labile (e.g., explosives) and may require acidic conditions for extraction (e.g., organometallic compounds). References to recent applications are presented emphasizing studies which utilize unspiked, natural matrices and studies that compare PLE to alternate extraction techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele M Schantz
- Analytical Chemistry Division, Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USA.
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Salgado-Petinal C, Llompart M, García-Jares C, García-Chao M, Cela R. Simple approach for the determination of brominated flame retardants in environmental solid samples based on solvent extraction and solid-phase microextraction followed by gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2006; 1124:139-47. [PMID: 16814310 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2006.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2006] [Revised: 06/05/2006] [Accepted: 06/07/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A viable approach for the analysis of polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in sewage sludge samples is presented in this paper. The proposed method combines ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) of the solid sample and headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) of the obtained extract, followed by gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS-MS) analysis. Different parameters affecting the extraction process are evaluated and optimized. The addition of a small amount of Florisil to the sample during UAE provides a significant improvement of the chromatographic background and, at the same time, a much more efficient HS-SPME. Extensive method validation is performed using real sewage sludge samples. The proposed method exhibits good performance in terms of linearity and precision, with recoveries exceeding 92% and limits of detection in the sub ng g(-1) level. Practical applicability is demonstrated through the analysis of real contaminated sewage sludge and sediment samples in which some of the target PBDEs are detected and quantified. This proposed combined methodology represents a large time-saving when compared to other classic multi-step solvent extraction methods and it constitutes a suitable approach for the analysis of the target compounds in environmental complex solid samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Salgado-Petinal
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultad de Química, Instituto de Investigación y Análisis Alimentario. Campus Sur., Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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Lambropoulou DA, Konstantinou IK, Albanis TA. Coupling of headspace solid phase microextraction with ultrasonic extraction for the determination of chlorinated pesticides in bird livers using gas chromatography. Anal Chim Acta 2006; 573-574:223-30. [PMID: 17723528 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2006.05.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2005] [Revised: 03/24/2006] [Accepted: 05/15/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In the present study a combined analytical method involving ultrasonic extraction (USE), sulfuric acid clean-up and headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) was developed for the determination of chlorinated pesticides (CPs) in bird livers. Extraction of CPs from 1g of liver was performed by ultrasonication for 30 min using 20 mL of solvent mixture (n-hexane:acetone (4:1, v/v)). The extract was subsequently subjected to a clean-up step for lipid removal. A comparative study on several clean-up procedures prior to the HS-SPME enrichment step was performed in order to achieve maximum recovery and optimal clean-up efficiency, which would provide suitable limits of detection in the gas chromatographic analysis. For this purpose, destructive (sulfuric acid or sodium hydroxide treatment) and non-destructive (alumina column) clean-up procedures has been assayed. The treatment of the extract with 40% (v/v) H2SO4 prior to HS-SPME process showed the best performance since lower detection limits and higher extraction efficiencies were obtained. The method detection limit ranged from 0.5 to 1.0 ng g(-1) wet weight and peak areas were proportional to analyte concentrations (r2>0.990) in the range of 5-500 ng g(-1) wet wt. The method was found to be reproducible (R.S.D.<10%) and effective under the operational conditions proposed and was applied successfully to the analysis of CPs in liver tissues of various bird species from Greece.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitra A Lambropoulou
- Laboratory of Environmental Technology, Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, Ioannina 45110, Greece.
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