In situ derivatization hollow fibre liquid-phase microextraction for the determination of biogenic amines in food samples

Monitoring biogenic amines in cream and cheese samples using liquid nitrogen-induced homogeneous liquid-liquid extraction combined with magnetic ionic liquid-based dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction and HPLC-DAD

In the current research, a sample pretreatment method termed liquid nitrogen-induced homogeneous liquid-liquid extraction combined with ionic liquid-based dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction was validated for the extraction of four biogenic amines from cream and cheese samples. Briefly, the sample was mixed with acetonitrile and deionized water in a tube, and the mixture was vortexed after adjusting its pH. The tube was then placed in liquid nitrogen, and the analytes were extracted into acetonitrile. Subsequently, the acetonitrile phase was collected, and after mixing with magnetic ionic liquid, the mixture was rapidly injected into deionized water. The extracted analytes were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography. Various parameters, including acetonitrile volume, vortexing time, sample solution pH, ionic strength, cooling time, and extraction solvent type and volume, were optimized using a one-factor-at-a-time method. For the considered biogenic amines, low limits of detection (0.89-1.25 ng g-1) and quantification (2.97-4.15 ng g-1), high extraction recoveries (68-83%), and good precision (relative standard deviations ≤ 5.3%) were attained using the proposed method. Finally, various cheese and cream samples were analyzed using the suggested method.

Quantification of residual organic bases in an active pharmaceutical ingredient using mixed-mode chromatography and UV detection

The use of organic bases is ubiquitous in chemical synthesis, yet quantifying these compounds with traditional HPLC methodologies is often hampered by poor peak shape, low retention, and limited UV absorption. When employed in the manufacture of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API), these compounds must be controlled to levels that are safe for human consumption, requiring robust analytical methods with sufficiently low quantification limits. This work describes the development of an HPLC method for the quantification of imidazole and 1,8-Diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec‑7-ene (DBU) in an API using mixed-mode chromatography. Through control of the pH and organic modifier gradients, the retention of the basic analytes and API can be tuned independently to achieve desirable retention and sensitivity for each compound. The resulting HPLC method exhibits good performance in linearity, accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and solution stability. Notably, these conditions avoid more complex detection modalities, such as mass spectrometry, while maintaining a system pressure below 400 bar, making the method compatible with a broad range of instruments. This approach to mixed-mode chromatography method development could be extended to different organic bases in the presence of complex molecules to fit the needs of projects in an academic or industrial environment.

Occurrence of biogenic amines and their correlation with bacterial communities in the Ivorian traditional fermented fish adjuevan during the storage

Adjuevan is an Ivorian traditional fermented fish used as a condiment. However, the fermentation process and storage conditions may lead to the production of biogenic amines (BA) which can induce severe human toxicological effects. Thus, this study aimed to reveal the bacterial community diversity and the BA contents during the storage. Samples of adjuevan from the fish species Chloroscombrus chrysurus, Galeoides decadactylus, and Thunnus thynnus were collected from local producers, stored at ambient temperature (28-30 °C) and in a refrigerator (4 °C) over a period of 8 weeks. At 2-week intervals, BA were determined by HPLC and the bacterial communities analyzed using high-throughput sequencing (NGS) of the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene. Results showed that histamine, cadaverine, putrescine, and tyramine were the major compounds. In adjuevan from T. thynnus, the level of histamine was over the maximum level of 200 mg/kg determined by Codex Alimentarius. For the other amines, no safety concerns are related. In total, 21 bacterial genera with a relative abundance ≥ 1% and belonging to 14 families and 5 phyla were detected. The Bacillaceae family was the most found at ambient temperature while Staphylococcaceae and Enterococcaceae were the most abundant in a refrigerator. The analysis of correlation showed that the increase of Lentibacillus leads to a decrease of the major BA at ambient temperature. On the contrary, the increase of Staphylococcus, Lactobacillus, Psychrobacter, Peptostreptococcus, and Fusobacterium leads to an increase of these biogenic compounds. Thus, Lentibacillus acted as BA-oxidizing bacteria while the others were found as BA-producing bacteria during adjuevan storage.

Analytical strategies for the determination of biogenic amines in dairy products

Biogenic amines (BA) are mainly produced by the decarboxylation of amino acids by enzymes from microorganisms that emerge during food fermentation or due to incorrectly applied preservation processes. The presence of these compounds in food can lead to a series of negative effects on human health. To prevent the ingestion of high amounts of BA, their concentration in certain foods needs to be controlled. Although maximum legal levels have not yet been established for dairy products, potential adverse effects have given rise to a substantial number of analytical and microbiological studies: they report concentrations ranging from a few mg/kg to several g/kg. This article provides an overview of the analytical methods for the determination of biogenic amines in dairy products, with particular focus on the most recent and/or most promising advances in this field. We not only provide a summary of analytical techniques but also list the required sample pretreatments. Since high performance liquid chromatography with derivatization is the most widely used method, we describe it in greater detail, including a comparison of derivatizing agents. Further alternative techniques for the determination of BA are likewise described. The use of biosensors for BA in dairy products is emerging, and current results are promising; this paper thus also features a section on the subject. This review can serve as a helpful guideline for choosing the best option to determine BA in dairy products, especially for beginners in the field.

Quantification of tyramine in different types of food using novel green synthesis of ficus carica quantum dots as fluorescent probe

Tyramine (TYM) is catecholamine releasing compound, tyramine rich food causing hypertensive crisis due to combination with monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOIs). So, Analysis of TYM in tyramine rich food (old cheese, cured meat, sausage, pickled olive and canned fish) and environment is very essential for hypertensive patients and improvement food industries. In this work, TYM was analyzed in different types of food using novel green synthesis carbon dots from ficus carica (Fig fruits). The gradual addition of TYM to PA@CQDs led to enhancement of the quantum dots fluorescence due to formation of hydrogen bonding between quantum dots and TYM. The calibration graph plotted in the range 5-400 ng mL^-1 . The method was applied to determination of TYM in different types of food as old cheese, cured meat, sausage, pickled olive and canned fish. The lower limit of quantitation (LOQ) was found to be 1.68 ng mL^-1 . The method successfully applied for the quantification of TYM in varying types of food with high sensitivity and high economic effect due to the reusability of the quantum dots. The optical and morphological characters of quantum dots were studied carefully.

Derivatization, an Applicable Asset for Conventional HPLC Systems without MS Detection in Food and Miscellaneous Analysis

One of the most valuable practices for analyzing not-so-analytical-friendly analytes in complex, heterogenous matrices is derivatization. Availability of numerous derivatizing reagents (DRs) makes the modification of analyte more exploitable in terms of an analytical perspective. A wide array of derivatization techniques like pre or post-column, in-situ, enzymatic, ultrasound-assisted, microwave-assisted, photochemical derivatization has added much-needed methodological strength in analyzing intricate analytical matrices (food, water, and soil). In recent years, analytical chemistry has achieved greater heights through the development of new sensitive methods with simple conventional instruments like High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) devoid of Mass detectors. The prompt availability of these straightforward instruments also makes it a favorable option for routine analysis in food, environmental, bioanalytical chemistry. Analyzing food, environmental or bioanalytical specimen has some of the most problematic aspects, like the low concentration of the analytes accompanied by not too suitable analytical properties. Even though conventional HPLC lacks the required sensitivity but merger with derivatization can lead to a remarkable increase in sensitivity. In recent years there has been a lot of application of diverse derivatizations to increase the sensitivity and selectivity of the analyte for available instruments, resulting in notable findings. Therefore, this review describes the application of derivatization principles in the analysis of analytes in food and additional matrices using conventional HPLC instruments such as HPLC-UV, HPLC-DAD, and HPLC-FD. In this article, we will briefly review the different modes and multiple types of derivatizing reagents with their mechanisms and importance for encouraging the use of established HPLC instruments.

Biosensors for Biogenic Amines: A Review

Biogenic amines (BAs) are well-known biomolecules, mostly for their toxic and carcinogenic effects. Commonly, they are used as an indicator of quality preservation in food and beverages since their presence in higher concentrations is associated with poor quality. With respect to BA’s metabolic pathways, time plays a crucial factor in their formation. They are mainly formed by microbial decarboxylation of amino acids, which is closely related to food deterioration, therefore, making them unfit for human consumption. Pathogenic microorganisms grow in food without any noticeable change in odor, appearance, or taste, thus, they can reach toxic concentrations. The present review provides an overview of the most recent literature on BAs with special emphasis on food matrixes, including a description of the typical BA assay formats, along with its general structure, according to the biorecognition elements used (enzymes, nucleic acids, whole cells, and antibodies). The extensive and significant amount of research that has been done to the investigation of biorecognition elements, transducers, and their integration in biosensors, over the years has been reviewed.

Determination of Biogenic Amines in Different Parts of Lycium barbarum L. by HPLC with Precolumn Dansylation

The aim of this work was to characterize biogenic amines (BAs) in different parts of Lycium barbarum L. using HPLC with dansyl chloride derivatization, and jointly, to provide referential data for further exploration and utilization of Lycium barbarum L. The linear correlation coefficients for all BAs were above 0.9989. The limits of detection and quantification were 0.015-0.075 and 0.05-0.25 μg/mL, respectively. The relative standard deviations for the intra-day and inter-day precision were 0.66-2.69% and 0.91-4.38%. The described method has good repeatability and intermediate precision for the quantitative determination of BAs in different parts of Lycium barbarum L. Satisfactory recovery for all amines was obtained (79.3-110.3%). The result showed that there were four kinds of BAs. The highest putrescine content (20.9 ± 3.2 mg/kg) was found in the flower. The highest histamine content (102.7 ± 5.8 mg/kg) was detected in the bark, and the highest spermidine (13.3 ± 1.6 mg/kg) and spermine (23.7 ± 2.0 mg/kg) contents were detected in the young leaves. The high histamine (HIS) content in the bark may be one of the reasons why all of the parts of Lycium barbarum L., except the bark, are used for medicine or food in China. Meanwhile, the issue of the high concentration of HIS should be considered when exploiting or utilizing the bark of Lycium barbarum L.

Review: Microextraction Technique Based New Trends in Food Analysis

Food chemistry is the study and classification of the quality and origin of foods. The identification of definite biomarkers and the determination of residue contaminants such as toxins, pesticides, metals, human and veterinary drugs, which are a very common source of food-borne diseases. The food analysis is continuously demanding the improvement of more robust, sensitive, highly efficient, and economically beneficial analytical approaches to promise the traceability, safety, and quality of foods in the acquiescence with the consumers and legislation demands. The traditional methods have been used at the starting of the 20th century based on wet chemical methods. Now it existing the powerful analytical techniques used in food analysis and safety. This development has led to substantial enhancements in the analytical accuracy, precision, sensitivity, selectivity, thereby mounting the applied range of food applications. In the present decade, microextraction (micro-scale extraction) pays more attention due to its futures such as low consumption of solvent and sample, throughput analysis easy to operate, greener, robotics, and miniaturization, different adsorbents have been used in the microextraction process with unique nature recognized with wide range applications.

Direct immersion single-drop microextraction of semi-volatile organic compounds in environmental samples: A review

Single-drop microextraction (SDME) techniques are efficient approaches to pretreatment of aqueous samples. The main advantage of SDME lies in the miniaturization of the solvent extraction process, minimizing the hazards associated with the use of toxic organic solvents. Thus, SDME techniques are cost-effective, and represent less harm to the environment, subscribing to green analytical chemistry principles. In practice, two main approaches can be used to perform SDME - direct immersion (DI)-SDME and headspace (HS)-SDME. Even though the DI-SDME has been shown to be quite effective for extraction and enrichment of various organic compounds, applications of DI-SDME are normally more suitable for moderately polar and non-polar semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) using organic solvents which are immiscible with water. In this review, we present a historical overview and current advances in DI-SDME, including the common analytical tools which are usually coupled with DI-SDME. The review also focuses on applications concerning SVOCs in environmental samples. Currents trends in DI-SDME and possible future direction of the procedure are discussed.

Biogenic Amines in Alcohol-Free Beverages

Biogenic amines are ubiquitous bioactive compounds that are synthesized by living organisms and perform essential functions for their metabolism. In the human diet, their excessive intake can cause food poisoning. In food, especially in alcohol-free beverages, biogenic amines can be synthesized by enzymes, naturally present in raw materials, or by microorganisms, which may be naturally present in the matrix or be added during beverage transformation processes. For this reason, in alcohol-free beverages, biogenic amine amount can be considered, above a certain level, as undesired microorganism activity. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the biogenic amine profile of non-alcoholic beverages in order to monitor food quality and safety. Moreover, biogenic amines can be taken into account by industries in order to monitor production processes and products. This review article provides an overview on the biogenic amine profile of alcohol-free beverages (plant milk, nervine drinks, soft drinks, and fruit juices). Furthermore, the clinical and toxicological effects, the biogenic amines legislation, and biogenic amine synthesis have been evaluated in non-alcoholic beverages.

Food-Related Atrial Fibrillation? The Potential Role of Biogenic Amines in “Nutri-Arrhythmias” Genesis

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common type of arrhythmia: a disorganized electrical atrial activity leading to irregular ventricular beats. Its most common risk factors include high blood pressure, congenital and valvular heart diseases, aging, heart failure and coronary heart diseases. Other risk factors include excessive alcohol intake, tobacco smoking, diabetes mellitus and thyrotoxicosis. However, many cases are not associated with any of these risk factors: probably, in these patients, immunological, functional and even dietary mechanisms may be responsible to induce cardiac arrhythmias. Several studies have focused on immunological and neurohumoral mechanisms; however, little information is available about the potential relationship between dietary patterns and atrial fibrillation episodes. This case report describes a potential correlation between biogenic amines in ingested food and recurrent atrial fibrillation onset in a 61-years old man in absence of a remarkable clinical history and of the most common risk factors. The nutritional team instituted a food protocol: a low calories diet and eliminating biogenic amines-rich foods. During the follow-up (16 months), there was a noticeable weight loss and no arrhythmic episodes happened again. This clinical case provides evidence for a possible new relationship between some kinds of food and heart conduction (defining the very novel field of arrhythmogenic foods and of “nutri-arrhythmias”), recognizing biogenic amines-rich foods abuse as the potential trigger and substrate for atrial fibrillation. Therefore, we suggested that clinical history in patients with new onset AF should also include questions concerning the ingestion of histamine-rich foodstuffs (or other amines-rich food) and alcohol consumption: their effects may result to be synergistic in the alteration of cardiac rhythm and may explain the recurrence of an unexplained atrial fibrillation.

Determination of biogenic amines in licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) by ion-pair extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

BACKGROUND

Ion-pair extraction combined with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method has been proposed for the determination of biogenic amines in licorice samples.

RESULTS

Limit of detection and limit of quantitation for the biogenic amines were 1.4-2.7 and 4.7-9.1 ng mL^-1 , respectively. Relative standard deviations based on five replicate extraction of 100 ng mL^-1 of each biogenic amine were <4.7% for intra-day and 7.4% for inter-day precision. The method described in this study has been shown to be in accordance with satisfactory accuracy and good reproducibility for the quantitative determination of biogenic amines in licorice samples. Nine biogenic amines (putrescine, cadaverine, histamine, spermine, spermidine, tyramine, tryptamine, agmatine and phenylethylamine) were detected in licorice samples and total biogenic amine concentrations were determined at 369 ng mL^-1 in fresh and 3532 ng mL^-1 in non-fresh licorice samples. Putrescine was found at the highest concentrations to be up to 704 ng mL^-1 in all the analyzed samples, followed by tyramine (675 ng mL^-1 ) and tryptamine (282 ng mL^-1 ). Putrescine, tyramine and spermine concentrations were dramatically increased, whereas agmatine concentration was significantly decreased, in non-fresh licorice samples compared to fresh ones.

CONCLUSION

The consumption of freshly prepared licorice is recommended because of the relatively low concentration of total biogenic amines. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Simultaneous Determination of Food-Related Biogenic Amines and Precursor Amino Acids Using in Situ Derivatization Ultrasound-Assisted Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction by Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry

A simple, rapid, sensitive, selective, and environmentally friendly method, based on in situ derivatization ultrasound-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (in situ DUADLLME) coupled with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode has been developed for the simultaneous determination of food-related biogenic amines and amino acids. A new mass-spectrometry-sensitive derivatization reagent 4'-carbonyl chloride rosamine (CCR) was designed, synthesized, and first reported. Parameters and conditions of in situ DUADLLME and UHPLC-MS/MS were optimized in detail. Under the optimized conditions, the in situ DUADLLME was completed speedily (within 1 min) with high derivatization efficiencies (≥98.5%). With the cleanup and concentration of microextraction step, good analytical performance was obtained for the analytes. The results showed that this method was accurate and practical for quantification of biogenic amines and amino acids in common food samples (red wine, beer, wine, cheese, sausage, and fish).

Environmentally friendly solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry for the determination of biogenic amines in fish samples

In this work, a facile and environmentally friendly solid-phase microextraction assay based on on-fiber derivatization coupled with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry was developed for determining four nonvolatile index biogenic amines (putrescine, cadaverine, histamine, and tyramine) in fish samples. In the assay, the fiber was firstly dipped into a solution with isobutyl chloroformate as derivatization reagent and isooctane as extraction solvent. Thus, a thin organic liquid membrane coating was developed. Then the modified fiber was immersed into sample solution to extract four important bioamines. Afterwards, the fiber was directly inserted into gas chromatography injection port for thermal desorption. 1,7-Diaminoheptane was employed as internal standard reagent for quantification of the targets. The limits of detection of the method were 2.98-45.3 μg/kg. The proposed method was successfully applied to the detection of bioamines in several fish samples with recoveries ranging 78.9-110%. The organic reagent used for extraction was as few as microliter that can greatly reduce the harm to manipulator and environment. Moreover, the extraction procedures were very simple without concentration and elution procedures, which can greatly simplify the pretreatment process. The assay can be extended to the in situ screening of other pollutant in food safety by changing the derivatization reagent.

An in situ derivatization - dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction combined with gas-chromatography - mass spectrometry for determining biogenic amines in home-made fermented alcoholic drinks

A novel dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) gas chromatography mass-spectrometry (GC-MS) method was developed for the determination of 13 biogenic amines in home-made wine samples. The method allows to simultaneous extraction and derivatization of the amines providing a simple and fast mode of extract enrichment. During the study, two different procedures were examined. Statistical analysis was performed to choose better procedure, as well as the conditions of derivatization reaction. At least, a mixture of methanol (dispersive solvent; 215μL), chloroform (extractive solvent; 400μL), and isobutyl choloroformate (derivatizing reagent; 90μL) was used as extractive/derivatizing reagent, added to 5mL of sample. The addition of mixture of pyridine and HCl was necessary to eliminate the by-products. The proposed method showed good linearity (correlation coefficients >0.9961), good recoveries (from 77 to 105%), and good intra-day precision (below 13%) and inter-day precision (below 10%). Moreover, detection limits were never over 4.1μg/L. The developed method was successfully applied to the analysis of 17 home-made wine samples not regulated by law. All of the biogenic amines analyzed were found in most of the wines.

Agarose- and alginate-based biopolymers for sample preparation: Excellent green extraction tools for this century

Recently, there has been considerable interest in the use of miniaturized sample preparation techniques before the chromatographic monitoring of the analytes in unknown complex compositions. The use of biopolymer-based sorbents in solid-phase microextraction techniques has achieved a good reputation. A great variety of polysaccharides can be extracted from marine plants or microorganisms. Seaweeds are the major sources of polysaccharides such as alginate, agar, agarose, as well as carrageenans. Agarose and alginate (green biopolymers) have been manipulated for different microextraction approaches. The present review is focused on the classification of biopolymer and their applications in multidisciplinary research. Besides, efforts have been made to discuss the state-of-the-art of the new microextraction techniques that utilize commercial biopolymer interfaces such as agarose in liquid-phase microextraction and solid-phase microextraction.

Development of a UHPLC-MS/MS method for the determination of plasma histamine in various mammalian species

Histamine is an important mediator of anaphylactic reactions. Although several methods have been developed to measure histamine levels, each has its limitations. In this study, we developed and validated a convenient bioanalytical method for the qualitative and quantitative determination of histamine in plasma samples from humans, beagle dogs, Sprague-Dawley rats, and imprinting control region mice. A simple plasma protein precipitation method using acetonitrile was selected, and hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry was used for sample separation and detection. Histamine was subjected to gradient elution with acetonitrile, ammonium acetate buffer, and formic acid. A mass spectrometer equipped with an electrospray ionization source was operated in the positive-ion multiple reaction monitoring mode for the detection of histamine and the internal standard. The [M+H](+) transitions were m/z 112→95 for histamine and m/z 116→99 for d4-histamine, which was used as the internal standard. The lower limit of quantification was 0.2μg/L and the calibration range was 0.2-500μg/L. The overall recovery ranged from 93.6% to 102.8%. The intra- and inter-run precision and accuracy were <15% for plasma samples from all four species. The method was validated by measuring the plasma histamine concentrations in five healthy human volunteers. In conclusion, we have developed and validated a novel bioanalytical method for the quantification of histamine levels in plasma samples from various mammalian species.

A separation of tyramine on a 2-(4-methoxyphenyl)ethylamine imprinted polymer: an answer from theoretical and experimental studies

A 2-(4-methoxyphenyl)ethylamine imprinted polymer (MIP) was successfully applied for the selective separation of tyramine. A computational analysis was used to predict the affinity of the polymer matrix towards tyramine and a preliminary experimental evaluation was made for the target analyte. Then the experimental analysis of polymer towards tyramine was continued. The binding sites were characterized with employment of the Langmuir and Freudlich models. After the optimization of solid phase extraction towards tyramine, the most appropriate systems for the extraction steps were chosen: methanol-water 85:15 v/v for the loading and the washing as well as 0.04 M aq. ammonium acetate-methanol 30:70 v/v for the elution steps. The biogenic compounds as tryptamine, serotonin, octopamine, synephrine, and l-tyrosine were used for the selectivity study on the basis of binding capacities of the analytes on the imprinted and the non-imprinted polymers. The theoretical approach to obtained results allowed to explain the adsorption selectivity of the tested polymer. Finally, the complex matrix of bovine serum albumin was used to show the usefulness of imprinted material for bioanalysis. The obtained recoveries showed the superiority of MIP over the commercial sorbent C18. Total recoveries of tyramine from spiked bovine serum albumin sample were determined as: 95±2%, 14±3%, and 1.9±0.4% for the imprinted, non-imprinted, and commercial C18 sorbents, respectively.