Current approaches to trace analysis of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment

Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in the Aquatic Environment: How Can Regions at Risk be Identified in the Future?

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are an indispensable component of a healthy society. However, they are well-established environmental contaminants, and many can elicit biological disruption in exposed organisms. It is now a decade since the landmark review covering the top 20 questions on PPCPs in the environment (Boxall et al., 2012). In the present study we discuss key research priorities for the next 10 years with a focus on how regions where PPCPs pose the greatest risk to environmental and human health, either now or in the future, can be identified. Specifically, we discuss why this problem is of importance and review our current understanding of PPCPs in the aquatic environment. Foci include PPCP occurrence and what drives their environmental emission as well as our ability to both quantify and model their distribution. We highlight critical areas for future research including the involvement of citizen science for environmental monitoring and using modeling techniques to bridge the gap between research capacity and needs. Because prioritization of regions in need of environmental monitoring is needed to assess future/current risks, we also propose four criteria with which this may be achieved. By applying these criteria to available monitoring data, we narrow the focus on where monitoring efforts for PPCPs are most urgent. Specifically, we highlight 19 cities across Africa, Central America, the Caribbean, and Asia as priorities for future environmental monitoring and risk characterization and define four priority research questions for the next 10 years. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:575-588. © 2023 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Non-target analysis for water characterization: wastewater treatment impact and selection of relevant features

Non-target analyses were conducted to characterize and compare the molecular profiles (UHPLC-HRMS fingerprint) of water samples from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Inlet and outlet samples were collected from three campaigns spaced 6 months apart in order to highlight common trends. A significant impact of the treatment on the sample fingerprints was shown, with a 65-70% abatement of the number of features detected in the effluent, and more polar, smaller and less intense molecules found overall compared to those in WWTP influent waters. Multivariate analysis (PCA) associated with variations of the features between inlets and outlets showed that features appearing or increasing were correlated with effluents while those disappearing or decreasing were correlated with influents. Finally, effluent features considered as relevant to a potentially adverse effect on aqueous media (i.e. those which appeared or increased or slightly varied from the influent) were highlighted. Three hundred seventy-five features common with the 3 campaigns were thus selected and further characterized. For most of them, elementary composition was found to be C, H, N, O (42%) and C, H, N, O, P (18%). Considering the MS2 spectra and several reference MS2 databases, annotations were proposed for 35 of these relevant features. They include synthetic products, pharmaceuticals and metabolites.

Application of the HPLC-ELSD technique for the determination of major metabolites of ibuprofen and creatinine in human urine

The report presents robust and high throughput methods, based on liquid chromatography coupled with evaporative light scattering detection (HPLC-ELSD), for the simultaneous determination of major metabolites of ibuprofen (IBU), namely 2-hydroxyibuprofen and carboxyibuprofen (method A) as well as creatinine (Crn) (method B) in human urine. The assays primarily involve straightforward sample purification. For both methods, the chromatographic separation of the analytes is achieved within 8 min at room temperature on Poroshell 120 SB-C18 (75 × 4.6 mm, 2.7 µm) column using gradient elution. The eluents consisted of 0.1% formic acid in water and acetonitrile (method A) or water and methanol (method B) delivered at a flow rate of 1 or 0.5 mL/min, respectively. In relation to metabolites of IBU, the assay linearity was observed within 0.06-0.5 g/L in urine, while the Crn assay linearity was demonstrated within 0.5-30 mmol/L in urine. The limit of quantification for IBU metabolites was determined to be 0.06 g/L, and 0.5 mmol/L for Crn. These methods were successfully applied to urine samples delivered by ten apparently healthy donors showing that the HPLC-ELSD assays are suitable for human urine screening.

Benzophenone-3 causes oxidative stress in the brain and impairs aversive memory in adult zebrafish

Oxybenzone (BP-3) is an ultraviolet (UV) filter widely used in industries that is directly or indirectly released into the aquatic environment. However, little is known about its effects on brain performance. Here, we investigated whether BP-3 exposure affects the redox imbalance in zebrafish and how they respond to a task that requires memory of an aversive situation. Fish were exposed to BP-3 10 and 50 μg L-1 for 15 days and then tested using an associative learning protocol with electric shock as a stimulus. Brains were extracted for reactive oxygen species (ROS) measurement and qPCR analysis of antioxidant enzyme genes. ROS production increased for exposed animals, and catalase (cat) and superoxide dismutase 2 (sod 2) were upregulated. Furthermore, learning and memory were reduced in zebrafish exposed to BP-3. These results suggested that BP-3 may lead to a redox status imbalance, causing impaired cognition and reinforcing the need to replace the toxic UV filters with filters that minimize environmental effects.

Gold vs. Silver Colloidal Nanoparticle Films for Optimized SERS Detection of Propranolol and Electrochemical-SERS Analyses

The increasing pollution of surface and groundwater bodies by pharmaceuticals is a general environmental problem requiring routine monitoring. Conventional analytical techniques used to quantify traces of pharmaceuticals are relatively expensive and generally demand long analysis times, associated with difficulties in performing field analyses. Propranolol, a widely used β-blocker, is representative of an emerging class of pharmaceutical pollutants with a noticeable presence in the aquatic environment. In this context, we focused on developing an innovative, highly accessible analytical platform based on self-assembled metal colloidal nanoparticle films for the fast and sensitive detection of propranolol based on Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS). The ideal nature of the metal used as the active SERS substrate was investigated by comparing silver and gold self-assembled colloidal nanoparticle films, and the improved enhancement observed on the gold substrate was discussed and supported by Density Functional Theory calculations, optical spectra analyses, and Finite-Difference Time-Domain simulations. Next, direct detection of propranolol at low concentrations was demonstrated, reaching the ppb regime. Finally, we showed that the self-assembled gold nanoparticle films could be successfully used as working electrodes in electrochemical-SERS analyses, opening the possibility of implementing them in a wide array of analytical applications and fundamental studies. This study reports for the first time a direct comparison between gold and silver nanoparticle films and, thus, contributes to a more rational design of nanoparticle-based SERS substrates for sensing applications.

Multi-residue method to determine selected personal care products from five classes in fish based on miniaturized matrix solid-phase dispersion and solid-phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

A method featuring matrix solid-phase dispersion combined with solid-phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was developed to determine parabens, musks, antimicrobials, UV filters, and an insect repellent in fish. Optimization and validation of the method was carried out on tilapia and salmon samples. Acceptable linearity (R² > 0.97), precision (relative standard deviations < 13 %) and accuracy (recovery > 80 %) at two concentration levels for all analytes were obtained using both matrices. The limits of detection ranged from 0.01 to 1.01 μg g^-1 (wet weight) for all analytes except for methyl paraben. The SPME Arrow format was applied to increase the sensitivity of the method, and yielded detection limits more than ten times lower than those achieved with traditional SPME. The miniaturized method can be applied to various fish species, regardless of their lipid content, and represents a useful tool for quality control and food safety purposes.

Fish liver damage related to the wastewater treatment plant effluents

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) continuously release a complex mixture of municipal, hospital, industrial, and runoff chemicals into the aquatic environment. These contaminants are both legacy contaminants and emerging-concern contaminants, affecting all tissues in a fish body, particularly the liver. The fish liver is the principal detoxifying organ and effects of consistent pollutant exposure can be evident on its cellular and tissue level. The objective of this paper is thus to provide an in-depth analysis of the WWTP contaminants' impact on the fish liver structure, physiology, and metabolism. The paper also gives an overview of the fish liver biotransformation enzymes, antioxidant enzymes, and non-enzymatic antioxidants, their role in metabolizing xenobiotic compounds and coping with oxidative damage. Emphasis has been placed on highlighting the vulnerability of fish to xenobiotic compounds, and on biomonitoring of exposed fish, generally involving observation of biomarkers in caged or native fish. Furthermore, the paper systematically assesses the most common contaminants with the potential to affect fish liver tissue.

Drug Delivery Strategies for Avobenzone: A Case Study of Photostabilization

Several developments and research methods are ongoing in drug technology and chemistry research to elicit effectiveness regarding the therapeutic activity of drugs along with photoprotection for their molecular integrity. The detrimental effect of UV light induces damaged cells and DNA, which leads to skin cancer and other phototoxic effects. The application of sunscreen shields to the skin is important, along with recommended UV filters. Avobenzone is widely used as a UVA filter for skin photoprotection in sunscreen formulations. However, keto-enol tautomerism propagates photodegradation into it, which further channelizes the phototoxic and photoirradiation effects, further limiting its use. Several approaches have been used to counter these issues, including encapsulation, antioxidants, photostabilizers, and quenchers. To seek the gold standard approach for photoprotection in photosensitive drugs, combinations of strategies have been implemented to identify effective and safe sunscreen agents. The stringent regulatory guidelines for sunscreen formulations, along with the availability of limited FDA-approved UV filters, have led many researchers to develop perfect photostabilization strategies for available photostable UV filters, such as avobenzone. From this perspective, the objective of the current review is to summarize the recent literature on drug delivery strategies implemented for the photostabilization of avobenzone that could be useful to frame industrially oriented potential strategies on a large scale to circumvent all possible photounstable issues of avobenzone.

Analysis of NSAIDs in Rat Plasma Using 3D-Printed Sorbents by LC-MS/MS: An Approach to Pre-Clinical Pharmacokinetic Studies

Analytical sample preparation techniques are essential for assessing chemicals in various biological matrices. The development of extraction techniques is a modern trend in the bioanalytical sciences. We fabricated customized filaments using hot-melt extrusion techniques followed by fused filament fabrication-mediated 3D printing technology to rapidly prototype sorbents that extract non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs from rat plasma for determining pharmacokinetic profiles. The filament was prototyped as a 3D-printed sorbent for extracting small molecules using AffinisolTM, polyvinyl alcohol, and triethyl citrate. The optimized extraction procedure and parameters influencing the sorbent extraction were systematically investigated by the validated LC-MS/MS method. Furthermore, a bioanalytical method was successfully implemented after oral administration to determine the pharmacokinetic profiles of indomethacin and acetaminophen in rat plasma. The Cmax was found to be 0.33 ± 0.04 µg/mL and 27.27 ± 9.9 µg/mL for indomethacin and acetaminophen, respectively, at the maximum time (Tmax) (h) of 0.5–1 h. The mean area under the curve (AUC0–t) for indomethacin was 0.93 ± 0.17 µg h/mL, and for acetaminophen was 32.33± 10.8 µg h/mL. Owing to their newly customizable size and shape, 3D-printed sorbents have opened new opportunities for extracting small molecules from biological matrices in preclinical studies.

Development of a new strategy for the synthesis of graphene oxide-alumina nanocomposite as an efficient adsorbent for dispersive solid-phase extraction of parabens

The present study investigates the synthesis and application of the graphene oxide-alumina nanocomposite as a new adsorbent for the dispersive solid-phase extraction of three parabens and their determination using high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection. The characterization of the synthesized material was accomplished and its size, morphology, chemical composition, porosity, and thermal stability were studied. Application of the proposed strategy for the synthesis of the nanocomposite resulted in the incorporation of Al₂ O₃ nanoparticles into graphene oxide nanosheets, further resulting in the exfoliation of graphene oxide nanosheets increasing their surface area. An orthogonal rotatable central composite design was used to optimize the extraction. Under the optimum conditions, the analytical performance of the method showed a suitable linear dynamic range (0.2-100.0 μg/L), reasonable limits of detection (0.03-0.05 μg/L), and preconcentration factors ranging from 128 to 173. Finally, the new validated method was applied for the determination of parabens in some real samples including wastewater, cream, toothpaste, and juice samples with satisfactory recoveries (88%-109%), and relative standard deviations less than 8.7% (n = 3). Results demonstrated that inserting alumina nanoparticles into graphene oxide nanosheets improved the extraction efficiency of parabens, as polar acidic compounds, by providing additional efficient interactions including hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole, and Brønsted and Lewis acid-base interactions.

Emerging contaminants of high concern for the environment: Current trends and future research

Wastewater is contaminated water that must be treated before it may be transferred into other rivers and lakes in order to prevent further groundwater pollution. Over the last decade, research has been conducted on a wide variety of contaminants, but the emerging contaminants are those caused primarily by micropollutants, endocrine disruptors (EDs), pesticides, pharmaceuticals, hormones, and toxins, as well as industrially-related synthetic dyes and dye-containing hazardous pollutants. Most emerging pollutants did not have established guidelines, but even at low concentrations they could have harmful effects on humans and aquatic organisms. In order to combat the above ecological threats, huge efforts have been done with a view to boosting the effectiveness of remediation procedures or developing new techniques for the detection, quantification and efficiency of the samples. The increase of interest in biotechnology and environmental engineering gives an opportunity for the development of more innovative ways to water treatment remediation. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of emerging sources of contaminants, detection technologies, and treatment strategies. The goal of this review is to evaluate adsorption as a method for treating emerging pollutants, as well as sophisticated and cost-effective approaches for treating emerging contaminants.

Methods for the analysis of endocrine disrupting chemicals in selected environmental matrixes

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are heterogenous in structure, chemical and physical properties, and their capacity to partition into various environmental matrixes. In many cases, these chemicals can disrupt the endocrine systems of vertebrate and invertebrate organisms when present at very low concentrations. Therefore, sensitive and varied analytical methods are required to detect these compounds in the environment. This review summarizes the analytical methods and instruments that are most used to monitor for EDCs in selected environmental matrixes. Only those matrixes for which there is a clear link between exposures and endocrine effects are included in this review. Also discussed are emerging methods for sample preparation and advanced analytical instruments that provide greater selectivity and sensitivity.

Assessment of Paracetamol Toxic Effects under Varying Seawater pH Conditions on the Marine Polychaete Hediste diversicolor Using Biochemical Endpoints

Simple Summary

Context of climate change is being widely studied, nevertheless its effects in the toxicity of other contaminants have been poorly study. Particularly, the effects of ocean acidification on the modulation of pharmaceutical absorption and consequent effects, have not been extensively addressed before. In this study, we aimed to assess the effects of ocean acidification (specifically pH values of 8.2, 7.9, and 7.6) combined with paracetamol exposure (0, 30, 60, and 120 µg/L) on the polychaeta Hediste diversicolor. To do so, specific biomarkers were measured namely (CAT), glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and cyclooxygenase (COX) activities, as well as thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS), were quantified to serve as ecotoxicological endpoints. Alterations of CAT, and GSTs activities, and TBARS levels indicate an alteration in redox balances. Differences in exposed pH levels indicate the possible modulation of the absorption of this pharmaceutical in ocean acidifications scenarios. Alterations in AChE were only observed following paracetamol exposure, not being altered by media pH. Hereby obtained results suggest that seawater acidification is detrimental to marine wildlife, since it may enhance toxic effects caused by environmental realistic concentrations of pharmaceuticals. This work is crucial to understand the potential effects of pharmaceuticals in a climate change scenario.

Abstract

Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) levels are likely to lower ocean pH values, after its dissolution in seawater. Additionally, pharmaceuticals drugs are environmental stressors due to their intrinsic properties and worldwide occurrence. It is thus of the utmost importance to assess the combined effects of pH decreases and pharmaceutical contamination, considering that their absorption (and effects) are likely to be strongly affected by changes in oceanic pH. To attain this goal, individuals of the marine polychaete Hediste diversicolor were exposed to distinct pH levels (8.2, 7.9, and 7.6) and environmentally relevant concentrations of the acidic drug paracetamol (PAR: 0, 30, 60, and 120 µg/L). Biomarkers such as catalase (CAT), glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and cyclooxygenase (COX) activities, as well as peroxidative damage (through thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) quantification), were quantified to serve as ecotoxicological endpoints. Data showed a general increase in CAT and a decrease in GST activities (with significant fluctuations according to the tested conditions of PAR and pH). These changes are likely to be associated with alterations of the redox cycle driven by PAR exposure. In addition, pH levels seemed to condition the toxicity caused by PAR, suggesting that the toxic effects of this drug were in some cases enhanced by more acidic conditions. An inhibition of AChE was observed in animals exposed to the highest concentration of PAR, regardless of the pH value. Moreover, no lipid peroxidation was observed in most individuals, although a significant increase in TBARS levels was observed for polychaetes exposed to the lowest pH. Finally, no alterations of COX activities were recorded on polychaetes exposed to PAR, regardless of the pH level. The obtained results suggest that seawater acidification is detrimental to marine wildlife, since it may enhance toxic effects caused by environmental realistic concentrations of acidic drugs, such as PAR. This work was crucial to evidence that ocean acidification, in the context of a global change scenario of increased levels of both atmospheric and oceanic CO₂, is a key factor in understanding the putative enhanced toxicity of most pharmaceutical drugs that are of an acidic nature.

Effect of Applied Electrical Stimuli to Interdigitated Electrode Sensors While Detecting 17α-Ethinylestradiol in Water Samples

The effect of impedance measurements of applied voltage on the detection of 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2) in water samples using interdigitated electrodes (IDE) coated or not with thin films, is described. Firstly, the effect of immersion in EE2 aqueous solutions of layer-by-layer films prepared with poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH), graphene oxide (GO), poly(1-(4-(3-carboxy-4-hydroxyphenylazo) benzene sulfonamido) 1,2 ethanediyl, sodium salt) (PAZO), polyethylenimine (PEI) and poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) (PSS) was analyzed. These results demonstrated that PAH/GO films desorb during the immersion on EE2 solutions, while EE2 adsorbs on PAH/PAZO and PEI/PSS films with characteristic time values of 16.7 and 7.1 min, respectively, demonstrating that both films are adequate for the development of EE2 sensors. However, as the adsorption characteristic time is shorter, and the EE2 adsorbed amount is smaller, the PEI/PSS films are more suitable for the development of sensors. The effect of the applied voltage was analyzed using both IDEs covered with PEI/PSS films as well as those uncoated. The capacitance spectra are best fitted to analyze this effect, and the loss tangent spectra are advantageous to analyze the aqueous media. Furthermore, it was concluded that lower voltage values are best suited to perform measurements of this nature, given that higher voltages lead to less reliable results and cause irreparable damage to the sensors.

Adsorption and detoxification of pharmaceutical compounds from wastewater using nanomaterials: A review on mechanism, kinetics, valorization and circular economy

Antibiotics overuse, inappropriate conduct, and discharge have led to adverse effects on various ecosystems. The occurrence of antibiotics in surface and drinking water is a matter of global concern. It is responsible for multiple disorders, including disruption of endocrine hormones and high chronic toxicity. The hospitals, pharmaceutical industries, households, cattle farms, and aquaculture are the primary discharging sources of antibiotics into the environment. This review provides complete detail on applying different nanomaterials or nanoparticles for the efficient removal of antibiotics from the diverse ecosystem with a broader perspective. Efforts have been made to focus on the degradation pathways and mechanism of antibiotic degradation using nanomaterials. More light has been shed on applying nanostructures in photocatalysis, which would be an economical and efficient solution. The nanoscale material or nanoparticles have incredible potential for mineralizing pharmaceutical compounds in aqueous solutions at low cost, easy handling characteristics, and high efficacy. Furthermore, nanoparticles can absorb the pharmaceutical by-products and wastes at a minimum cost as they can be easily recycled. With the increasing number of research in this direction, the valorization of pharmaceutical wastes and by-products will continue to expand as we progress from old conventional approaches towards nanotechnology. The utilization of nanomaterials in pharmaceutical wastewater remediation is discussed with a major focus on valorization, energy generation, and minimization and its role in the circular economy creating sustainable development.

Time study on the uptake of four different beta-blockers in garden cress (Lepidium sativum) as a model plant

The aim of this study was to investigate the uptake of four beta-blockers by the model plant Lepidium sativum (garden cress) and their possible metabolization over a time period of 8 days. Therefore, cress was grown hydroponically in tap water for a week until they were matured, following irrigation with drug-containing water over the course of another 8 days. Samples were taken at days 1, 2, 4, and 8 after irrigation started. All four beta-blockers were taken up by the plants and the different octanol-water coefficients (log P) of the drugs have an influence on the uptake speed in the roots of the plants. The log P seems to have no influence on the translocation of the drugs from the root to the shoots. Furthermore, neither phase I nor phase II metabolization occurred inside the plants.

Uptake and bio-transformation of telmisartan by cress (Lepidium sativum) from sewage treatment plant effluents using high-performance liquid chromatography/drift-tube ion-mobility quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

In the present study, the uptake and metabolization of the sartan drug telmisartan by a series of plants was investigated. Thereby for seven potential metabolites, modifications on the telmisartan molecule such as hydroxylation and/or glycosylation could be tentatively identified. For two additional signals detected at accurate masses m/z 777.3107 and m/z 793.3096, no suggestions for molecular formulas could be made. Further investigations employing garden cress (Lepidium sativum) as a model plant were conducted. This was done in order to develop an analytical method allowing the detection of these substances also under environmentally relevant conditions. For this reason, the knowledge achieved from treatment of the plants with rather high concentrations of the parent drug (10 mg L^-1) was compared with results obtained when using solutions containing telmisartan in the μg - ng L^-1 range. Thereby the parent drug and up to three tentative drug-related metabolites could still be detected. Finally cress was cultivated in water taken from a local waste water treatment plant effluent containing 90 ng L^-1 of telmisartan and harvested and the cress roots were extracted. In this extract, next to the parent drug one major metabolite, namely telmisartan-glucose could be identified.

Recent Advances in Solid-Phase Extraction (SPE) Based on Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIPs) for Analysis of Hormones

Steroid hormones are active substances that are necessary in the normal functioning of all physiological activities in the body, such as sexual characteristics, metabolism, and mood control. They are also widely used as exogenous chemicals in medical and pharmaceutical applications as treatments and at times growth promoters in animal farming. The vast application of steroid hormones has resulted in them being found in different matrices, such as food, environmental, and biological samples. The presence of hormones in such matrices means that they can easily come into contact with humans and animals as exogenous compounds, resulting in abnormal concentrations that can lead to endocrine disruption. This makes their determination in different matrices a vital part of pollutant management and control. Although advances in analytical instruments are constant, it has been determined that these instruments still require some sample preparation steps to be able to determine the occurrence of pollutants in the complex matrices in which they occur. Advances are still being made in sample preparation to ensure easier, selective, and sensitive analysis of complex matrices. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) have been termed as advanced solid-phase (SPE) materials for the selective extraction and preconcentration of hormones in complex matrices. This review explores the preparation and application of MIPs for the determination of steroid hormones in different sample types.

A review on effective removal of emerging contaminants from aquatic systems: Current trends and scope for further research

Wastewater is water that has already been contaminated by domestic, industrial and commercial activity that needs to be treated before it could be discharged into some other water bodies to avoid even more groundwater contamination supplies. It consists of various contaminants like heavy metals, organic pollutants, inorganic pollutants and Emerging contaminants. Research has been doing on all types of contaminates more than a decade, but this emerging contaminants is the contaminants which arises mostly from pharmaceuticals, personal care products, hormones and fertilizer industries. The majority of emerging contaminants did not have standardized guidelines, but may have adverse effects on human and marine organisms, even at smaller concentrations. Typically, extremely low doses of emerging contaminants are found in the marine environment and cause a potential risk to the aquatic animals living there. When contaminants emerge in the marine world, they are potentially toxic and pose many risks to the health of both man and livestock. The aim of this article is to review the Emerging contaminate sources, detection methods and treatment methods. The purpose of this study is to consider the adsorption as a beneficial treatment of emerging contaminants also advanced and cost effective emerging contaminates treatment methods.

A fast-screening approach for the tentative identification of drug-related metabolites from three non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in hydroponically grown edible plants by HPLC-drift-tube-ion-mobility quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

The (tentative) identification of unknown drug-related phase II metabolites in plants upon drug uptake remains a challenging task despite improved analytical instrument performance. To broaden the knowledge of possible drug metabolization, a fast-screening approach for the tentative identification of drug-related phase II metabolites is presented in this work. Therefore, an in silico database for the three non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (ketoprofen, mefenamic acid, and naproxen) and a sub-group of their theoretical phase II metabolites (based on combinations with glucose, glucuronic acid, and malonic acid) was created. Next, the theoretical exact masses (protonated species and ammonia adducts) were calculated and used as precursor ions in an autoMS/MS measurement method. The applicability of this workflow was tested on the example of eleven edible plants, which were hydroponically grown in solutions containing the respective drug at a concentration level of 20 mg/L. For the three drugs investigated this led to the tentative identification of 41 metabolites (some of them so far not described in this context), such as combinations of hydroxylated mefenamic acid with up to four glucose units or hydroxylated mefenamic acid with two glucose and three malonic acid units.

A SPE-HPLC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of prioritised pharmaceuticals and EDCs with high environmental risk potential in freshwater

This work describes the development, optimisation and validation of an analytical method for the rapid determination of 17 priority pharmaceutical compounds and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Rather than studying compounds from the same therapeutic class, the analyses aimed to determine target compounds with the highest risk potential (with particular regard to Scotland), providing a tool for further monitoring in different water matrices. Prioritisation was based on a systematic environmental risk assessment approach, using consumption data; wastewater treatment removal efficiency; environmental occurrence; toxicological effects; and pre-existing regulatory indicators. This process highlighted 17 compounds across various therapeutic classes, which were then quantified, at environmentally relevant concentrations, by a single analytical methodology. Analytical determination was achieved using a single-step solid phase extraction (SPE) procedure followed by high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The fully optimised method performed well for the majority of target compounds, with recoveries >71% for 15 of 17 analytes. The limits of quantification for most target analytes (14 of 17) ranged from 0.07 ng/L to 1.88 ng/L in river waters. The utility of this method was then demonstrated using real water samples associated with a rural hospital/setting. Eight compounds were targeted and detected, with the highest levels found for the analgesic, paracetamol (at up to 105,910 ng/L in the hospital discharge). This method offers a robust tool to monitor high priority pharmaceutical and EDC levels in various aqueous sample matrices.

An innovative sampling approach combined with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the analysis of emerging pollutants in drinking water

In this work, an innovative sampling and preconcentration method followed by analysis with liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization (LC-ESI-MS/MS) was developed for the determination of different emerging pollutants (five anti-inflammatory drugs and one antibacterial agent) in water matrices. Thin-film microextraction blades, consisting of stainless steel blades with a coating made of divinylbenzene, have been employed. The blades, fixed onto a stainless steel support, were mounted on a laboratory stirrer with adjustable speed, immersed in water samples and eluted with methanol. The analytical procedure was developed, carefully optimizing stirring speed and extraction time. A good reproducibility among the blades was observed; quantitation limits at the ng L^-1 level were achieved. Calibration curves were constructed by applying the whole procedure to tap water samples, free from analytes, spiked with standards in the concentration range 0.01-2 μg L^-1 ; good linearity was obtained, with R² between 0.9984 and 0.9991. The optimized method was applied to tap and surface waters; two anti-inflammatory drugs were detected at the ng L^-1 level in surface water. In one sample, diclofenac and naproxen were measured at 26 ± 5 and 15 ± 1 ng L^-1 , respectively; only diclofenac was quantified in the other sample at 14 ± 3 ng L^-1 .

Monitoring pharmaceuticals and personal care products in water and fish from the Gulf of Urabá, Colombia

Gulf of Urabá is considered a tourist zone of Antioquia Department attracts a large number of visitors to explore the aquatic ecosystem and beaches thus offering a large economic benefit. However, this region has been affected by various anthropogenic effects thus generating an environmental problematic that affect aquatic ecosystem. Over the years, several research has been evaluated pollutant such as pesticides, metals and physicochemical parameters, even our laboratory had found several toxic metals in fish from this same area. The presence of emerging pollutant in matrices such as seawater and fish from Gulf of Urabá have not been reported, and to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study. This work presents important aspects relating to sampling, monitoring and surveillance of seawater and several fish species caught in the area in order to determinate the content of emerging pollutant (triclosan, ibuprofen, diclofenac) using UPLC-QqQ/MS. In general, all three pharmaceuticals in different sampling sites were detected and total concentrations ranged from 0.10 to 1.54 μg/L in surface water. However, emerging pollutants content in fish muscle was not detected. In addition, a high variability in triclosan, ibuprofen and diclofenac concentrations according to the season of sampling was found. Regarding to seasonal variations, most emerging pollutant in the surface water had variation in levels both dry and wet season. Better removal was presented in the dry season, due to stronger irradiation and greater activity of microorganisms.

Comparison of toxicological effects of oxybenzone, avobenzone, octocrylene, and octinoxate sunscreen ingredients on cucumber plants (Cucumis sativus L.)

Oxybenzone (OBZ), avobenzone (AVB), octocrylene (OCR) and octinoxate (OMC) are ultraviolet (UV) filters commonly added to chemical sunscreens. These UV filters are known to widely contaminate the environment through a variety of anthropogenic sources, including sewage discharge. However, systematic studies of the damage caused by these four UV filters and their toxicopathological differences in a variety of plant species are lacking. In this study, we demonstrated that irrigation with water containing these four UV filters could significantly inhibit the aboveground growth of cucumber plant. All of the UV filters decreased photosynthesis through nonstomatal factors but via different inhibitory mechanisms. Only OBZ inhibited photosynthesis by directly inhibiting photosynthetic electron transport, while the other three (AVB, OCR, and OMC) inhibited photosynthesis by inhibiting the Calvin-Benson cycle. Additionally, these four UV filters also decreased plant respiration under long-term treatment. Photosynthesis and respiration inhibition led to the over production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the formation of lipid peroxidation damage products, which further damaged the structure and function of plant cells, causing secondary pathologies and potentially leading to reduced crop yields. The study also demonstrated that these four UV filters caused different degrees of phototoxic damage to cucumber plants. On the basis of comprehensive evaluation, we speculated that the order of the four UV filters in terms of plant damage was OBZ > AVB > OMC > OCR. Because of the severe damaging effects of these UV filters on plant growth, the application of contaminated biosolids/reclaimed water in agriculture reduces agricultural production and may damage ecosystems. The results of this study can advance recognition of the hazards associated with environmental and agricultural pollution via UV filters and encourage consumers and the industry to limit or reduce the application of cosmetics and over-the-counter drugs containing these substances.

Monitoring pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-a practical overview

The presence of pharmaceuticals, which are considered as contaminants of emerging concern, in natural waters is currently recognized as a widespread problem. Monitoring these contaminants in the environment has been an important field of research since their presence can affect the ecosystems even at very low levels. Several analytical techniques have been developed to detect and quantify trace concentrations of these contaminants in the aquatic environment, namely high-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography, and capillary electrophoresis, usually coupled to different types of detectors, which need to be complemented with time-consuming and costly sample cleaning and pre-concentration procedures. Generally, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), as other immunoassay methodologies, is mostly used in biological samples (most frequently urine and blood). However, during the last years, the number of studies referring the use of ELISA for the analysis of pharmaceuticals in complex environmental samples has been growing. Therefore, this work aims to present an overview of the application of ELISA for screening and quantification of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment, namely in water samples and biological tissues. The experimental procedures together with the main advantages and limitations of the assay are addressed, as well as new incomes related with the application of molecular imprinted polymers to mimic antibodies in similar, but alternative, approaches. Graphical Abstract.

Efficient removal of oxytetracycline from aqueous solution by a novel magnetic clay-biochar composite using natural attapulgite and cauliflower leaves

A novel magnetic attapulgite-biochar composite (MABC) derived from natural attapulgite, cauliflower leaves, and FeCl₃ was successfully prepared as a low-cost adsorbent for oxytetracycline (OTC) removal from aqueous solution. Characterization experiments by different techniques suggested that attapulgite clay particles and Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles were successfully covered on the MABC surface. Compared with the pristine biochar (CLB) and attapulgite-biochar composite (ABC), MABC had the largest surface area, well-developed pore structure, and more surface oxygen-containing functional groups which could interact with organic pollutant via hydrogen bonding, π-π electron coupling, complexation, and ion exchange. The maximum adsorption capacity of MABC by the Langmuir model was 33.31 mg/g, which was dramatically higher than that of CLB and ABC. The effects of solution initial pH had little difference on the adsorption of OTC because of the buffering effect. Adsorbent-regeneration studies of MABC exhibited good reusability and separation property. All the results indicated that MABC could be used as a potential adsorbent because of its easy preparation and separation, high efficiency, wide pH range application, and abundant and cheap raw materials in the global ecosystem. Graphical abstract.

Influence of filtration during sample pretreatment on the detection of antibiotics and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in natural surface waters

Owing to the ease and effectiveness of removing suspended substances (SSs), filtration has become a universal pretreatment step during water sample preparation. However, it can lead to the underestimation of contaminants if the targets easily associate with the SSs or filters. For the first time, this study comprehensively assessed issues related to filtration for the accurate quantification of 35 typical pharmaceuticals, including 28 antibiotics and seven non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), in water samples by comparing the effects of different filter materials, preservatives, and water matrices on the recoveries. The results showed that some sulfonamides and NSAIDs had an affinity for nylon filters, whereas trimethoprim and macrolides were easily retained on mixed cellulose ester filters. The use of glass fiber filter (0.7 μm) resulted in improved recovery of all the targets. Acidification promoted the adsorption of fluoroquinolones, tylosin, and roxithromycin on SSs, whereas 5% methanol resulted in desorption of macrolides from the SSs and other pharmaceuticals (sulfadiazine, trimethoprim, etc.) from the solid-phase extraction cartridges. Without additional detection of targets adsorbed on the SSs and filters, the addition of appropriate surrogates prior to filtration can help correct the loss.

Removal of emerging contaminants from wastewater through pilot plants using intermittent sand/coke filters for its subsequent reuse

Effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are widely recognized as the main source of emerging contaminants (stimulants and antibiotics). In this study, intermittent sand and/or coke filters were installed as a tertiary treatment at the outlet of a secondary settling tank at the WWTP in Medina Sidonia, Spain. Regular sampling followed by solid-phase extraction (SPE) and analysis by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) showed the complete removal of the concentrations of the emerging contaminants (caffeine, theobromine, theophylline, amoxicillin and penicillin G). Moreover, optimal filtration conditions for the reuse of treated water were presented.

Environmentally-related contaminants of high concern: Potential sources and analytical modalities for detection, quantification, and treatment

In recent years, emerging contaminants (ECs) of high concern are broadly distributed throughout the environmental matrices because of various industrial practices and anthropogenic inputs, i.e., human-made activities. With ever increasing scientific knowledge, technological advancement, socio-economic awareness, people are now more concern about the widespread distribution of environmentally related ECs of high concern. As, ECs possess serious ecological threats and potential risks to human health and aquatic life, even at minor concentrations. The controlled or uncontrolled discharge and long-term persistence of ECs that includes micro-pollutants, endocrine disruptors (EDs), pesticides, pharmaceuticals, hormones, toxins, and industrially-related synthetic dyes and dyes-containing hazardous pollutants, etc. pose a significant challenge to policy regulators, engineers, and scientific community. The conventional treatment technologies are proved ineffective for the complete elimination and removal of an array of contaminants of emerging environmental concern in various biological and environmental samples. In order to overcome the aforementioned ecological threats, tremendous research efforts have been made to boost the efficiency of remediation techniques or develop new modalities to detect, quantify and treat the samples efficiently. The boom in biotechnology and environmental engineering offers potential opportunities to develop advanced and innovative remediation techniques in the field of water treatment. This review discusses the environmental and health hazards associated with a widespread distribution of micro-pollutants, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, hormones, and industrially-related synthetic dyes and dyes-containing hazardous pollutants, etc. in the water bodies, i.e., surface water, groundwater, and industrial wastewater streams. Life-cycle distribution of emerging (micro)-pollutants with suitable examples from various industrial sources viewpoints is also discussed. The later part of the review focuses on innovative and cost-effective remediation (removal) approaches from phase-changing treatment technologies for these ECs of high concern.

Pharmaceutical Mixtures: Still A Concern for Human and Environmental Health

In the present work, recent data on the sources, occurrence and fate of human-use pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) in the aquatic environment have been reviewed. Since PhACs and their metabolites are usually present as mixtures in the environment at very low concentrations, a particular emphasis was placed onto the PhACs mixtures, as well as on their short-term and long-term effects against human and environmental health. Moreover, a general overview of the main conventional as well as of the latest trends in wastewaters decontaminant technologies was outlined. Advantages and disadvantages of current processes were also pointed out. It appears that numerous gaps still exist in the current knowledge related to this field of interest, and further studies should be conducted at the global level in order to ensure a more efficient monitorisation of the presence of PhACs and their metabolites into the aquatic environment and to develop new mitigation measures.

Marine environment pollution: The contribution of mass spectrometry to the study of seawater

The study of marine pollution has been traditionally addressed to persistent chemicals, generally known as priority pollutants; a current trend in environmental analysis is a shift toward "emerging pollutants," defined as newly identified or previously unrecognized contaminants. The present review is focused on the peculiar contribution of mass spectrometry (MS) to the study of pollutants in the seawater compartment. The work is organized in five paragraphs where the most relevant groups of pollutants, both "classical" and "emerging," are presented and discussed, highlighting the relative data obtained by the means of different MS techniques. The hyphenation of MS and separative techniques, together with the development of different ion sources, makes MS and tandem MS the analytical tool of choice for the determination of trace organic contaminants in seawater. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Mass Spec Rev 37:492-512, 2018.

Antibiotics in the aquatic environments: A review of lakes, China

The potential threat of antibiotics to the environment and human health has raised significant concerns in recent years. The consumption and production of antibiotics in China are the highest in the world due to its rapid economic development and huge population, possibly resulting in the high detection frequencies and concentrations of antibiotics in aquatic environments of China. As a water resource, lakes in China play an important role in sustainable economic and social development. Understanding the current state of antibiotics in lakes in China is important. Closed and semi-closed lakes provide an ideal medium for the accumulation of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). This review summarizes the current levels of antibiotic exposure in relevant environmental compartments in lakes. The ecological and health risks of antibiotics are also evaluated. This review concludes that 39 antibiotics have been detected in the aquatic environments of lakes in China. The levels of antibiotic contamination in lakes in China is relatively high on the global scale. Antibiotic contamination is higher in sediment than water and aquatic organisms. Quinolone antibiotics (QNs) pose the greatest risks. The contents of antibiotics in aquatic organisms are far lower than their maximum residual limits (MRLs), with the exception of the organisms in Honghu Lake. The lakes experience high levels of ARG contamination. A greater assessment of ARG presence and antibiotic exposure are urgent.

Uptake and metabolism of the antidepressants sertraline, clomipramine, and trazodone in a garden cress (Lepidium sativum) model

Environmental contamination with pharmaceuticals has received growing attention in recent years. Several studies describe the presence of traces of drugs in water bodies and soils and their impacts on nontarget organisms including plants. Due to these facts investigations of the uptake and metabolism of pharmaceuticals in organisms is an emerging research area. The present study demonstrates the analysis of three selected antidepressants (sertraline, clomipramine, and trazodone) as well as metabolites and transformation products in a cress model (Lepidium sativum). Cress was treated with tap water containing 10 mg/L of the parent drugs. Employing an analytical approach based on high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time of flight or Orbitrap mass spectrometry in MS and MS² modes, in total 14 substances were identified in the cress extracts. All three parent drugs were taken up by the cress and translocated from the roots to the leaves in specific patterns. In addition to this, eleven metabolite species were identified. They were generated by hydroxylation, demethylation, conjugation with amino acids, or combinations of these mechanisms. Finally, the inclusion of control cultures in the experimental setup allowed for a differentiation of "true" metabolites generated by the cress and transformation products generated by plant-independent mechanisms.

Simple method for the determination of personal care product ingredients in lettuce by ultrasound-assisted extraction combined with solid-phase microextraction followed by GC-MS

A simple method for the simultaneous determination of personal care product ingredients: galaxolide, tonalide, oxybenzone, 4-methylbenzyliden camphor, padimate-o, 2-ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate, octocrylene, triclosan, and methyl triclosan in lettuce by ultrasound-assisted extraction combined with solid-phase microextraction followed by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry was developed. Lettuce was directly extracted by ultrasound-assisted extraction with methanol, this extract was combined with water, extracted by solid-phase microextraction in immersion mode, and analyzed by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry. Good linear relationships (25-250 ng/g, R2  > 0.9702) and low detection limits (1.0-25 ng/g) were obtained for analytes along with acceptable precision for almost all analytes (RSDs < 20%). The validated method was applied for the determination of personal care product ingredients in commercial lettuce and lettuces grown in soil and irrigated with the analytes, identifying the target analytes in leaves and roots of the latter. This procedure is a miniaturized and environmentally friendly proposal which can be a useful tool for quality analysis in lettuce.