Recent developments in industrial applications of nanoemulsions

Effect of clove essential oil nanoemulsion on physicochemical and antioxidant properties of chitosan film

This study evaluated the physicochemical and antioxidant properties of clove essential oil (0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 % v/v) nanoemulsion (CEON) loaded chitosan-based films. With the increasing concentrations of the CEON, the thickness, b* and ΔE values of the films increased significantly (P < 0.05), while L* and light transmission dropped noticeably (P < 0.05). The hydrogen bonds formed between the CEON and chitosan could be demonstrated through Fourier-transform infrared spectra, indicating their good compatibility and intermolecular interactions. Furthermore, the added CEON considerably reduced the crystallinity and resulted in a porous structure of the films, as observed through X-ray diffraction plots and scanning electron microscopy images, respectively. This eventually led to a drop in both tensile strength and moisture content of the films. Moreover, the antioxidant properties were significantly enhanced (P < 0.05) with the increase in the amount of clove essential oil (CEO) due to the encapsulation of CEO by the nanoemulsion. Films containing 0.6 % CEO had higher elongation at break, higher water contact angle, lower water solubility, lower water vapor permeability, and lower oxygen permeability than the other films; therefore, such films are promising for application in meat preservation.

Antimicrobial Activity of Polycaprolactone Nanofiber Coated with Lavender and Neem Oil Nanoemulsions against Airborne Bacteria

The development of efficient, eco-friendly antimicrobial agents for air purification and disinfection addresses public health issues connected to preventing airborne pathogens. Herein, the antimicrobial activity of a nanoemulsion (control, 5%, 10%, and 15%) containing neem and lavender oils with polycaprolactone (PCL) was investigated against airborne bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus. Various parameters such as the physicochemical properties of the nanoemulsion, pH, droplet size, the polydispersity index (PDI), the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), the minimum bacterial concentration (MBC), and the color measurement of the emulsion have been evaluated and optimized. Our results showed that the antimicrobial activity of PCL combined with neem and lavender oil was found to be the highest MIC and MBC against all tested bacteria. The droplet sizes for lavender oil are 21.86-115.15 nm, the droplet sizes for neem oil are 23.92-119.15 nm, and their combination is 25.97-50.22 nm. The range of pH and viscosity of nanoemulsions of various concentrations was found to be 5.8 to 6.6 pH and 0.372 to 2.101 cP. This study highlights the potential of nanotechnology in harnessing the antimicrobial properties of natural essential oils, paving the way for innovative and sustainable solutions in the fight against bacterial contamination.

Recent developments in nanoemulsions against spoilage in cold-stored fish: A review

Nanoemulsion-based technology is developing rapidly in the food industry, especially in the design of delivery systems for bioactive compounds. This review presents an in-depth understanding of the composition, function, antibacterial mechanism and successful application of nanoemulsions as preservative agents against fish spoilage. The results showed that the inclusion of bioactive substances in the food-grade nanoemulsions encapsulation system could improve its stability, control its release, inhibit the microbial growth and reproduction through a variety of targets. These nanoemulsions can inhibit fish spoilage via reducing microbial load and retarding the oxidation of proteins and lipids, thereby maintaining quality attributes of fish. In addition, nanoemulsions could be coupled with vacuum package for enhancing microbial destruction, retaining nutritional value and extending the shelf-life of fish. Accordingly, nanoemulsions are suggested as a promising strategy to inhibit fish spoilage.

Targeted treatment of atherosclerosis with protein-polysaccharide nanoemulsion co-loaded with photosensitiser and upconversion nanoparticles

Macrophages are the most abundant cell group in atherosclerosis (AS) lesions and play a vital role in all stages of AS progression. Recent research has shown that reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation from photodynamic therapy (PDT) induces macrophage autophagy to improve abnormal lipid metabolism and inflammatory environment. Especially in macrophage-derived foam cells, which has become a potential strategy for the treatment of AS. In this study, we prepared the conjugate (DB) of dextran (DEX) and bovine serum albumin (BSA). The DB was used as the emulsifier to prepare nanoemulsion loaded with upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) and chlorin e6 (Ce6) (UCNPs-Ce6@DB). The DEX modified on the surface of the nanoemulsion can recognise and bind to the scavenger receptor class A (SR-A) highly expressed on macrophages and promote the uptake of macrophage-derived foam cells in AS plates through SR-A-mediated endocytosis. In addition, UCNPs-Ce6@DB-mediated PDT enhanced ROS generation and induced autophagy in macrophage-derived foam cells, enhanced the expression of ABCA1, a protein closely related to cholesterol efflux, and inhibited the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Ultimately, UCNPs-Ce6@DB was shown to inhibit plaque formation in mouse models of AS. In conclusion, UCNPs-Ce6@DB offers a promising treatment for AS.

Recent advances in oral delivery systems of resveratrol: foreseeing their use in functional foods

Herein, we review the current state-of-the-art on the use of micro- and nano-delivery systems, a possible solution to some of the drawbacks associated with the incorporation of resveratrol in foods. Specifically, we present an overview of a wide range of micro-nanostructures, namely, lipidic and polymeric, used for the delivery of resveratrol. Also, the gastrointestinal fate of resveratrol-loaded micro-nanostructures, as a critical parameter for their use as functional food, is explored in terms of stability, bioaccessibility, and bioavailability. Different micro-nanostructures are of interest for the development of functional foods given that they can provide different advantages and properties to these foods and even be tailor-made to address specific issues (e.g., controlled or targeted release). Therefore, we discuss a wide range of micro-nanostructures, namely, lipidic and polymeric, used to deliver resveratrol and aimed at the development of functional foods. It has been reported that the use of some production methodologies can be of greater interest than others, for example, emulsification, solvent displacement and electrohydrodynamic processing (EHDP) enable a greater increase in bioaccessibility. Additionally, the use of coatings facilitates further improvements in bioaccessibility, which is likely due to the increased gastric stability of the coated micro-nanostructures. Other properties, such as mucoadhesion, can also help improve bioaccessibility due to the increase in gut retention time. Additionally, cytotoxicity (e.g., biocompatibility, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory) and possible sensorial impact of resveratrol-loaded micro- and nano-systems in foods are highlighted.

Formulation, Characterization, and Evaluation of β-Cyclodextrin Functionalized Hypericin Loaded Nanocarriers

St. John's wort in western Europe has been extensively utilized for the treatment of mild to moderate depression. Hypericin, a red pigment, is found to be responsible for its antidepressant activity. The aim of the current study was to prepare a nanoemulsion (O/W) of hypericin designed for immediate delivery of the drug to the brain for the treatment of depression. The nanoemulsion was prepared by means of a homogenization technique, and that was followed by its physicochemical evaluation. Tween-80, Span-80, β-cyclodextrin, ethanol, and eucalyptus oil were utilized for the manufacturing of the nanoemulsion. Morphological studies have revealed globular structures of nanosize that were confirmed by the zeta analysis. The consistency of particles was revealed by the low polydispersity values. pH values of all formulations lay within the range of nasal pH. The viscosity of the prepared formulations was affected by the increase in concentrations of β-cyclodextrin. After passing from the centrifugation and freeze-thaw studies, the prepared formulations showed good stability. Formulation F2 having a composition of oil phase (0.125 mL), aqueous phase (1.25 mL), and β-cyclodextrin (8%) showed the best results out of all the formulations, and F2 had a pH of 5.7, 5.35 cP viscosity, 1.332 refractive index, 148.8 globule size, and -10.8 zeta potential. The mean percentage drug release and in vitro and ex vivo percentage drug permeations were observed to be 71.75, 76, and 75.07%, respectively. Meanwhile, formulation F2 showed the maximum drug release and permeation. In vivo behavior studies including the open field test, elevated plus maze test, and tail suspension test were conducted to see the antidepressant effect of hypericin along with comparison with a commercially available treatment. In conclusion, the prepared formulation shows good efficacy as an antidepressant and can be considered as a natural alternative over synthetic drugs.

Are all yeast biosurfactants really capable of lowering surface tension below 30 mN/m ?

The study discusses pitfalls in attempts to determine reliable surface tension values for the culture media and their extracts for two biosurfactant-producing yeast strains: Rhodotorula graminis and Rhodotorula babjevae. The values obtained from an Axisymmetric Drop Shape Analysis (ADSA) tensiometer showed systematically more and more shallow dynamic surface tension decays, suggesting a deterioration of their surface activity. The rate of this apparent surface activity loss was shown to depend on the sample history, with slower changes observed in vigorously shaken samples. On the other hand, the force-based Wilhelmy plate method provided apparently stable surface tension values of the order of 30 mN/m, in accordance with numerous previous literature reports on similar yeast biosurfactants. Both observations can be justified by the presence of an oil emulsified by biosurfactants produced by the yeast. We show that the odd (apparent) surface tension results are in fact the measurement artifacts resulting from slow demulsification and subsequent oil-spreading assisted by the yeast biosurfactants. The apparent surface tension reduction is thus indeed caused by the presence of biosurfactants, but its value does not represent their real adsorption in a thermodynamic sense. Consequently, the often reported in the literature very low surface tension values for the yeast culture media, of the order of 30 ± 5 mN/m, should be treated with caution, especially if the emulsion stabilized with the biosurfactant had not been fully destabilized prior to the measurement.

A Cocktail-Based Formula for the Design of Nanosized Cosmeceuticals as Skincare and Anti-Age Products

Nasco and Bovale grape pomace extracts, alone or in association, were loaded in nanoemulsions tailored for cosmetic application, using Kolliphor®RH40 (kolliphor) as the synthetic surfactant, Olivem®1000 (olivem) as the natural one, and lecithin as the cosurfactant. Pink transparent or milky dispersions, as a function of the used extract and surfactant, were obtained to be used as cosmeceutical serum or milk. The sizes of the nanoemulsion droplets were small (≈77 nm with kolliphor and ≈141 nm with olivem), homogenously dispersed (~0.24 with kolliphor and ~0.16 with olivem), highly negatively charged (≈-43 mV irrespective of the used surfactant) and their stability either on storage or under stressing conditions was affected by the used extract and surfactant. Formulations protected the extracts from the degradation caused by UV exposition, were biocompatible against keratinocytes, protected them against oxidative damages induced using hydrogen peroxide and inhibited the release of nitrite induced in macrophages using the lipopolysaccharide inflammatory stimulus. The overall results underlined the key role played by the composition of the formula to achieve a suitable cosmeceutical for skin care but even for the prevention of premature aging and chronic damages caused by the stressing conditions.

New weapons against the disease vector Aedes aegypti: From natural products to nanoparticles

Despite the global burden of viral diseases transmitted by Aedes aegypti, there is a lack of effective means of prevention and treatment. Strategies for vector control include chemical and biological approaches such as organophosphates and Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti), among others. However, important concerns are associated, such as resistance in mosquito larvae and deleterious effects on non-target organisms. In this scenario, novel approaches against A. aegypti have been investigated, including natural products (e.g. vegetable oil and extracts) and nanostructured systems. This review focuses on potential strategies for fighting A. aegypti, highlighting plant-based materials and nanomaterials able to induce toxic effects on egg, larva, pupa and adult mosquitoes. Issues including aspects of conventional vector control strategies are presented, and finally new insights on development of eco-friendly nanoformulations against A. aegypti are discussed.

Nanofood Process Technology: Insights on How Sustainability Informs Process Design

Nanostructured products are an actively growing area for food research, but there is little information on the sustainability of processes used to make these products. In this Review, we advocate for selection of sustainable process technologies during initial stages of laboratory-scale developments of nanofoods. We show that selection is assisted by predictive sustainability assessment(s) based on conventional technologies, including exploratory ex ante and "anticipatory" life-cycle assessment. We demonstrate that sustainability assessments for conventional food process technologies can be leveraged to design nanofood process concepts and technologies. We critically review emerging nanostructured food products including encapsulated bioactive molecules and processes used to structure these foods at laboratory, pilot, and industrial scales. We apply a rational method via learning lessons from sustainability of unit operations in conventional food processing and critically apportioned lessons between emerging and conventional approaches. We conclude that this method provides a quantitative means to incorporate sustainability during process design for nanostructured foods. Findings will be of interest and benefit to a range of food researchers, engineers, and manufacturers of process equipment.

Baru oil (Dipteryx alata vog.) applied in the formation of O/W nanoemulsions: A study of physical-chemical, rheological and interfacial properties

The oil extracted from baru (Dipteryx alata Vog.) seeds is in bioactive compounds and it presents potential to be used in food and cosmetic industries. Therefore, this study aims to provide insights into the stability of baru oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsions. For this purpose, the effects of the ionic strength (0, 100 and 200 mM), pH (6, 7 and 8), and storage time (28 days) on the kinetic stability of these colloidal dispersions were evaluated. The nanoemulsions were characterized in terms of interfacial properties, rheology, zeta potential (ζ), average droplet diameter, polydispersity index (PDI), microstructure, and creaming index. In general, for samples, the equilibrium interfacial tension ranged from 1.21 to 3.4 mN.m^-1, and the interfacial layer presented an elastic behavior with low dilatational viscoelasticity. Results show that the nanoemulsions present a Newtonian flow behavior, with a viscosity ranging from 1.99 to 2.39 mPa.s. The nanoemulsions presented an average diameter of 237-315 nm with a low polydispersity index (<0.39), and a ζ-potential ranging from 39.4 to 50.3 mV after 28 days of storage at 25 °C. The results obtained for the ζ-potential suggest strong electrostatic repulsions between the droplets, which is an indicative of relative kinetic stability. In fact, macroscopically, all the nanoemulsions were relatively stable after 28 days of storage, except the nanoemulsions added with NaCl. Nanoemulsions produced with baru oil present a great potential to be used in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries.

Systematic Study of Paeonol/Madecassoside Co-Delivery Nanoemulsion Transdermal Delivery System for Enhancing Barrier Repair and Anti-Inflammatory Efficacy

Sensitive skin is defined as skin with low tolerance and high reactivity. Natural products, such as paeoniflorin and madecassoside, have unique skin care functionality. However, because they are hampered by the skin barrier, paeoniflorin and madecassoside have difficulty penetrating the stratum corneum, resulting in weakened skin barrier repair and anti-inflammatory effects. In addition, there is a lack of detailed studies on the efficacy of paeonol and madecassic in human skin, especially in 3D skin models and clinical trials. To overcome the low transdermal delivery issue, we developed nanoemulsions (PM-NEs) loaded with paeonol and madecassoside to improve their delivery efficiency and promote sensitive skin repair and anti-inflammation effects. Furthermore, systematic evaluations of the efficacy in cell line models, 3D skin models, and clinical trials were conducted. The PM-NEs effectively improved the efficacy of paeonol and madecassoside glucoside transdermal penetration and retention and enhanced cellular uptake. Cellular assays and 3D epidermal models showed that the PM-NEs significantly promoted the secretion of filamentous protein, aquaporin 3, Claudin-1, and hyaluronic acid, and considerably inhibited the secretion of interleukin 1α, interleukin 6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and prostaglandin E₂ compared to free components. Notably, clinical trial data showed that the PM-NEs significantly reduced transepidermal water loss, a* values, erythropoietin, the amount of non-inflammatory acne, and the amount of inflammatory acne in the facial skin. Three levels of systematic studies suggest that co-delivery of paeoniflorin and madecassoside via nanoemulsions is a promising strategy to improve topical delivery efficiency and anti-inflammatory repair efficacy in sensitive skin.

Nanoemulsification of soybean oil using ultrasonic microreactor: Process optimization, scale-up and numbering-up in series

Ultrasonically-induced nanoemulsions have been widely investigated for the development of functional food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals due to ideal droplet sizes (DS), low polydispersity index (PDI), and superior physical stability. However, a series of frequently-used ultrasonic set-ups mainly suffered from a low ultrasonic energy efficiency caused by the large acoustic impedance and energy consumption, subordinately confronted with a low throughput, complicated fabrication with complex structure and weak ultrasonic cavitation. Herein, we employed a typical ultrasonic microreactor (USMR) that ensured the high-efficient energy input and generated intense cavitation behavior for efficient breakage of droplets and continuous production of unified oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsions in a single cycle and without any pre-emulsification treatment. The emulsification was optimized by tuning the formula indexes, technological parameters, and numerical analysis using Response Surface Methodology (RSM), followed by a comparison with the emulsification by a traditional ultrasonic probe. The USMR exhibited superior emulsification efficiency and easy scale-up with remarkable uniformity by series mode. In addition, concurrent and uniform nanoemulsions with high throughput could also be achieved by a larger USMR with high ultrasonic power. Based on RSM analysis, uniform DS and PDI of 96.4 nm and 0.195 were observed under the optimal conditions, respectively, well consistent with the predicted values. Impressively, the optimal nanoemulsions have a uniform spherical morphology and exhibited superior stability, which held well in 45 days at 4℃ and 25℃. The results in the present work may provide a typical paradigm for the preparation of functional nanomaterials based on the novel and efficient emulsification tools.

Encapsulation of Carvacrol-Loaded Nanoemulsion Obtained Using Phase Inversion Composition Method in Alginate Beads and Polysaccharide-Coated Alginate Beads

Nanoemulsions have been widely studied as lipophilic compound loading systems. A low-energy emulsification method, phase inversion composition (PIC), was used to prepare oil-in-water nanoemulsions in a carvacrol-coconut oil/Tween 80^®-(linoleic acid-potassium linoleate)/water system. The phase behaviour of several emulsification paths was studied and related to the composition range in which small-sized stable nanoemulsions could be obtained. An experimental design was carried out to determine the best formulation in terms of size and stability. Nanoemulsions with a very small mean droplet diameter (16-20 nm) were obtained and successfully encapsulated to add carvacrol to foods as a natural antimicrobial and antioxidant agent. They were encapsulated into alginate beads by external gelation. In order to improve the carvacrol kinetics release, the beads were coated with two different biopolymers: chitosan and pullulan. All formulations were analysed with scanning electron microscopy to investigate the surface morphology. The release patterns at different pHs were evaluated. Different kinetics release models were fitted in order to study the release mechanisms affecting each formulation. Chitosan-coated beads avoided the initial release burst effect, improving the beads' structure and producing a Fickian release. At basic pH, the chitosan-coated beads collapsed and the pullulan-coated beads moderately improved the release pattern of the alginate beads. For acid and neutral pHs, the chitosan-coated beads presented more sustained release patterns.

Fabrication, characterization, and interventions of protein, polysaccharide and lipid-based nanoemulsions in food and nutraceutical delivery applications: A review

The fabrication and application of nanoemulsions for incorporating and delivering diverse bioactive compounds, particularly hydrophobic substances, is becoming an increasing focus of research with the potential to improve the nutritional and health status of individuals. Constant advancements in nanotechnological approaches aid in the creation of nanoemulsions using diverse biopolymers such as proteins, peptides, polysaccharides, and lipids to improve the stability, bioactivity, and bioavailability of active hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds. This article provides a comprehensive overview of various techniques used to create and characterize nanoemulsions as well as theories for understanding their stability. The article also highlights the advancement of nanoemulsions in boosting the bioaccessibility of nutraceuticals to help advance their potential use in various food and pharmaceutical formulations.

Precision Medicines for Retinal Lipid Metabolism-Related Pathologies

Oxidation of lipids and lipoproteins contributes to inflammation processes that promote the development of eye diseases. This is a consequence of metabolism dysregulation; for instance, that of the dysfunctional peroxisomal lipid metabolism. Dysfunction of lipid peroxidation is a critical factor in oxidative stress that causes ROS-induced cell damage. Targeting the lipid metabolism to treat ocular diseases is an interesting and effective approach that is now being considered. Indeed, among ocular structures, retina is a fundamental tissue that shows high metabolism. Lipids and glucose are fuel substrates for photoreceptor mitochondria; therefore, retina is rich in lipids, especially phospholipids and cholesterol. The imbalance in cholesterol homeostasis and lipid accumulation in the human Bruch's membrane are processes related to ocular diseases, such as AMD. In fact, preclinical tests are being performed in mice models with AMD, making this area a promising field. Nanotechnology, on the other hand, offers the opportunity to develop site-specific drug delivery systems to ocular tissues for the treatment of eye diseases. Specially, biodegradable nanoparticles constitute an interesting approach to treating metabolic eye-related pathologies. Among several drug delivery systems, lipid nanoparticles show attractive properties, e.g., no toxicological risk, easy scale-up and increased bioavailability of the loaded active compounds. This review analyses the mechanisms involved in ocular dyslipidemia, as well as their ocular manifestations. Moreover, active compounds as well as drug delivery systems which aim to target retinal lipid metabolism-related diseases are thoroughly discussed.

Emulsion-Based Delivery Systems to Enhance the Functionality of Bioactive Compounds: Towards the Use of Ingredients from Natural, Sustainable Sources

In recent years, the trend in the population towards consuming more natural and sustainable foods has increased significantly. This claim has led to the search for new sources of bioactive compounds and extraction methods that have less impact on the environment. Moreover, the formulation of systems to protect these compounds is also focusing on the use of ingredients of natural origin. This article reviews novel, natural alternative sources of bioactive compounds with a positive impact on sustainability. In addition, it also contains information on the most recent studies based on the use of natural (especially from plants) emulsifiers in the design of emulsion-based delivery systems to protect bioactive compounds. The properties of these natural-based emulsion-delivery systems, as well as their functionality, including in vitro and in vivo studies, are also discussed. This review provides relevant information on the latest advances in the development of emulsion delivery systems based on ingredients from sustainable natural sources.

Development of Two-Dimensional Offline Coupling of Asymmetrical Flow Field-Flow Fractionation and Capillary Electrophoresis for the Separation of a Five-Component Submicrometer Particle Mixture

Submicrometer colloidal particles are widely applied in a variety of industrial products. While precise size and surface charge control is crucial to the stability and functionality of these materials, a tool to determine these properties with sufficient resolution, detection sensitivity, and robustness is still not available. The recently reported offline coupling of asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation and capillary electrophoresis (AF4 × CE) shows success in improving the separation resolution for nanoparticles; however, challenges remain for sensitive multiple-component submicrometer particle analysis because of wide size and mobility distributions. We here report offline coupling of an AF4 method and a CE method, which utilized the online reversed electrode polarity stacking mode, to successfully characterize a five-component, submicrometer particle mixture. The mixture was successfully separated and detected with an improved inter- and intracomponent resolution. Therefore, our developed platform holds great potential for industrial applications involving multiple-component particle mixtures.

In vitro evaluation of NA1-115-7-loaded nanoemulsions, an MCL-1-specific inhibitor of natural origin, intended to treat B-cell lymphoproliferative disorders after oral administration

MCL-1, an anti-apoptotic member of the BCL-2 protein family, is overexpressed in many types of cancer and contributes to chemotherapy resistance. The drimane derivative NA1-115-7 is a natural compound isolated from Zygogynum pancheri that can be considered as a very promising lead for treating MCL-1-dependent hematological malignancies. As this drug suffers from low stability in acidic conditions and poor aqueous solubility, we evaluated the potential oral use of NA1-115-7 by encapsulating it in lipid nanoemulsions (NA-NEs) prepared by spontaneous emulsification. NA-NEs showed a particle size of 41.9 ± 2.2 nm, PDI of 0.131 ± 0.016, zeta potential of -5.8 ± 3.4 mV, encapsulation efficiency of approximately 100 % at a concentration of 24 mM. The stability of NA-1-115-7 was sixfold higher than that of the unencapsulated drug in simulated gastric fluid. NA-NEs significantly restored apoptosis and halved the effective doses of NA1-115-7 on BL2, a Burkitt lymphoma cell line, without toxicity in normal cells. Such a drug-delivery system appears to be particularly interesting for the oral administration of NA1-115-7, as it improves its solubility and stability, as well as efficacy, by reducing the therapeutic dose, making it possible to further consider in-vivo studies of this promising drug in BL2 xenografted mice.

Two-Phase Extraction Processes, Physicochemical Characteristics, and Autoxidation Inhibition of the Essential Oil Nanoemulsion of Citrus reticulata Blanco (Tangerine) Leaves

Combined ultrasound-microwave techniques and pre-enzymatic treatment (hemicellulase and cellulase) enhance essential oil isolation from Citrus reticulata Blanco (tangerine) leaves (CrBL). Subsequently, synergistic effects of modified amorphous octenyl succinic anhydride starch (OSA-MS), almond oil, and high-energy microfluidics were studied in synergy with ultrasound techniques in the production of CrBL essential oil (CrBL-EO) nanoemulsion (CrBL-EONE). GC-MS was used to study the extraction technique. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis was used with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) techniques to investigate the nanoemulsion matrices' physical and chemical properties. The D-limonene nanoemulsion (D-LNE) reached the optimal size of droplets (65.3 ± 1.1 r.nm), polydispersity index (PDI) (0.167 ± 0.015), and ζ-potential (-41.0 ± 0.4 mV). Besides, the CrBL-EONE obtained the optimal size of droplets (86.5 ± 0.5 r.nm), PDI (0.182 ± 0.012), and ζ-potential (-40.4 ± 0.8 mV). All the nanoparticle treatments showed significant values in terms of the creaming index (CI%) and inhibition activity (IA%) in the β-carotene/linoleate system with a low degradation rate (DR). The current study's findings showed that integrated ultrasound-microwave techniques and pre-enzymatic treatment could enhance the extraction efficiency of the CrBL-EO. In addition, OSA-MS and almond oil can also be employed to produce CrBL-EONE and D-LNE.

Phosphatidylcholine-Based Nanoemulsions for Paclitaxel and a P-Glycoprotein Inhibitor Delivery and Breast Cancer Intraductal Treatment

In this study, incorporation of the cytotoxic agent paclitaxel and the P-glycoprotein inhibitor elacridar in hyaluronic acid (HA)-modified nanoemulsions was studied for intraductal delivery and breast cancer localized treatment. To improve cytotoxicity, we investigated the incorporation of perillyl alcohol or tributyrin as components of the nanoemulsion oil phase. The nanoemulsions presented size <180 nm and negative zeta potential. Both tributyrin and perillyl alcohol increased nanoemulsion cytotoxicity in MCF-7 cells, but not in MDA-MB-231. However, perillyl alcohol reduced nanoemulsion stability in the presence of the drugs. Concomitant incorporation of paclitaxel and elacridar in HA- and tributyrin-containing nanoemulsions (PE-NETri) increased cytotoxicity and reduced IC50 by 1.6 to 3-fold in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells compared to the nanoemulsion containing only paclitaxel (P-NE). This nanoemulsion also produced a 3.3-fold reduction in the viability of MDA-MB-231 spheroids. Elacridar incorporated in the nanoemulsion was capable of inhibiting P-glycoprotein in membranes. In vivo intraductal administration of the NE containing HA resulted in a three-fold higher retention of a fluorescent marker compared to a solution or nanoemulsion without HA, demonstrating the importance of HA. The nanoemulsion produced no histological changes in the mammary tissue. These results support the potential applicability of the nanoemulsion for local breast cancer management.