1
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Nabawy MRA. A simple model of wake capture aerodynamics. J R Soc Interface 2023; 20:20230282. [PMID: 37751875 PMCID: PMC10522412 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2023.0282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Flapping wings may encounter or 'capture' the wake from previous half-stroke, leading to local changes in the instantaneous aerodynamic force on the wing at the start of each half-stroke. In this paper, I developed a simple approach to integrating prediction of these wake capture effects into existing analytical quasi-steady models for hovering insect flapping flight. The local wake flow field is modelled as an additional induced velocity component normal to the stroke plane of the flapping motion that is blended/switched in at the start of each half-stroke. Comparison of model results against experimental data in the literature shows satisfactory agreement in predicting the wake capture lift and drag variations for eight different test cases. Sensitivity analysis shows that the form of the translation velocity time history has a significant effect on the magnitude of wake capture forces. Profiles that retain high translational velocity right up to stroke reversal evoke a much larger effect from wake capture compared with sinusoidal. This result is significant because while constant flapping translation velocity profiles can be generated in the laboratory, the very high accelerations required near stroke reversals incur high mechanical cost that prevents practical adoption in nature or engineered flapping flight vehicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mostafa R. A. Nabawy
- School of Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
- Aerospace Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt
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2
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Min Y, Zhao G, Pan D, Shao X. Aspect Ratio Effects on the Aerodynamic Performance of a Biomimetic Hummingbird Wing in Flapping. Biomimetics (Basel) 2023; 8:216. [PMID: 37366811 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics8020216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 05/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Hummingbirds are flapping winged creatures with unique flight mechanisms. Their flight pattern is more similar to insects than other birds. Because their flight pattern provides a large lift force at a very small scale, hummingbirds can remain hovering while flapping. This feature is of high research value. In order to understand the high-lift mechanism of hummingbirds' wings, in this study a kinematic model is established based on hummingbirds' hovering and flapping process, and wing models imitating the wing of a hummingbird are designed with different aspect ratios. Therefore, with the help of computational fluid dynamics methods, the effect of aspect ratio changes on the aerodynamic characteristics of hummingbirds' hovering and flapping are explored in this study. Through two different quantitative analysis methods, the results of lift coefficient and drag coefficient show completely opposite trends. Therefore, lift-drag ratio is introduced to better evaluate aerodynamic characteristics under different aspect ratios, and it is found that the lift-drag ratio reaches a higher value when AR = 4. A similar conclusion is also reached following research on the power factor, which shows that the biomimetic hummingbird wing with AR = 4 has better aerodynamic characteristics. Furthermore, the study of the pressure nephogram and vortices diagram in the flapping process are examined, leading to elucidation of the effect of aspect ratio on the flow field around hummingbirds' wings and how these effects ultimately lead to changes in the aerodynamic characteristics of the birds' wings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yilong Min
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Gengyao Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Dingyi Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Xueming Shao
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
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3
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Lempidakis E, Ross AN, Quetting M, Garde B, Wikelski M, Shepard ELC. Estimating fine-scale changes in turbulence using the movements of a flapping flier. J R Soc Interface 2022; 19:20220577. [PMID: 36349445 PMCID: PMC9653225 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
All animals that operate within the atmospheric boundary layer need to respond to aerial turbulence. Yet little is known about how flying animals do this because evaluating turbulence at fine scales (tens to approx. 300 m) is exceedingly difficult. Recently, data from animal-borne sensors have been used to assess wind and updraft strength, providing a new possibility for sensing the physical environment. We tested whether highly resolved changes in altitude and body acceleration measured onboard solo-flying pigeons (as model flapping fliers) can be used as qualitative proxies for turbulence. A range of pressure and acceleration proxies performed well when tested against independent turbulence measurements from a tri-axial anemometer mounted onboard an ultralight flying the same route, with stronger turbulence causing increasing vertical displacement. The best proxy for turbulence also varied with estimates of both convective velocity and wind shear. The approximately linear relationship between most proxies and turbulence levels suggests this approach should be widely applicable, providing insight into how turbulence changes in space and time. Furthermore, pigeons were able to fly in levels of turbulence that were unsafe for the ultralight, paving the way for the study of how freestream turbulence affects the costs and kinematics of animal flight.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrew N. Ross
- School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | | | - Baptiste Garde
- Department of Biosciences, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, UK
| | - Martin Wikelski
- Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Radolfzell, Germany
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Emily L. C. Shepard
- Department of Biosciences, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, UK
- Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Radolfzell, Germany
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4
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Gehrke A, Richeux J, Uksul E, Mulleners K. Aeroelastic characterisation of a bio-inspired flapping membrane wing. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2022; 17:065004. [PMID: 35917821 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ac8632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Natural fliers like bats exploit the complex fluid-structure interaction between their flexible membrane wings and the air with great ease. Yet, replicating and scaling the balance between the structural and fluid-dynamical parameters of unsteady membrane wings for engineering applications remains challenging. In this study, we introduce a novel bio-inspired membrane wing design and systematically investigate the fluid-structure interactions of flapping membrane wings. The membrane wing can passively camber, and its leading and trailing edges rotate with respect to the stroke plane. We find optimal combinations of the membrane properties and flapping kinematics that out-perform their rigid counterparts both in terms of increased stroke-average lift and efficiency, but the improvements are not persistent over the entire input parameter space. The lift and efficiency optima occur at different angles of attack and effective membrane stiffnesses which we characterise with the aeroelastic number. At optimal aeroelastic numbers, the membrane has a moderate camber between 15% and 20% and its leading and trailing edges align favourably with the flow. Higher camber at lower aeroelastic numbers leads to reduced aerodynamic performance due to negative angles of attack at the leading edge and an over-rotation of the trailing edge. Most of the performance gain of the membrane wings with respect to rigid wings is achieved in the second half of the stroke when the wing is decelerating. The stroke-maximum camber is reached around mid-stroke but is sustained during most of the remainder of the stroke which leads to an increase in lift and a reduction in power. Our results show that combining the effect of variable stiffness and angle of attack variation can significantly enhance the aerodynamic performance of membrane wings and has the potential to improve the control capabilities of micro air vehicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Gehrke
- École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Unsteady Flow Diagnostics Laboratory, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jules Richeux
- École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Unsteady Flow Diagnostics Laboratory, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Esra Uksul
- École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Unsteady Flow Diagnostics Laboratory, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Karen Mulleners
- École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Unsteady Flow Diagnostics Laboratory, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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5
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Broadley P, Nabawy MRA, Quinn MK, Crowther WJ. Dynamic experimental rigs for investigation of insect wing aerodynamics. J R Soc Interface 2022; 19:20210909. [PMID: 35642428 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2021.0909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper provides a systematic and critical review of dynamic experimental rigs used for insect wing aerodynamics research. The goal is to facilitate meaningful comparison of data from existing rigs and provide insights for designers of new rigs. The scope extends from simple one degree of freedom rotary rigs to multi degrees of freedom rigs allowing various rotation and translation motions. Experimental methods are characterized using a consistent set of parameters that allows objective comparison of different approaches. A comprehensive catalogue is presented for the tested flow conditions (assessed through Reynolds number, Rossby number and advance ratio), wing morphologies (assessed through aspect ratio, planform shape and thickness to mean chord ratio) and kinematics (assessed through motion degrees of freedom). Links are made between the type of aerodynamic characteristics being studied and the type of experimental set-up used. Rig mechanical design considerations are assessed, and the aerodynamic measurements obtained from these rigs are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Broadley
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester M1 3BB, UK
| | - Mostafa R A Nabawy
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester M1 3BB, UK.,Aerospace Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt
| | - Mark K Quinn
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester M1 3BB, UK
| | - William J Crowther
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester M1 3BB, UK
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6
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D'Adamo J, Collaud M, Sosa R, Godoy-Diana R. Wake and aeroelasticity of a flexible pitching foil. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2022; 17:045002. [PMID: 35523157 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ac6d96] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
A flexible foil undergoing pitching oscillations is studied experimentally in a wind tunnel with different imposed free stream velocities. The chord-based Reynolds number is in the range 1600-4000, such that the dynamics of the system is governed by inertial forces and the wake behind the foil exhibits the reverse Bénard-von Kármán vortex street characteristic of flapping-based propulsion. Particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements are performed to examine the flow around the foil, whilst the deformation of the foil is also tracked. The first natural frequency of vibration of the foil is within the range of flapping frequencies explored, determining a strongly-coupled dynamics between the elastic foil deformation and the vortex shedding. Cluster-based reduced order modelling is applied on the PIV data in order to identify the coherent flow structures. Analysing the foil kinematics and using a control-volume calculation of the average drag forces from the corresponding velocity fields, we determine the optimal flapping configurations for thrust generation. We show that propulsive force peaks occur at dimensionless frequencies shifted with respect to the elastic resonances that are marked by maximum trailing edge oscillation amplitudes. The thrust peaks are better explained by a wake resonance, which we examine using the tools of classic hydrodynamic stability on the mean propulsive jet profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan D'Adamo
- Laboratorio de Fluidodinámica, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Av. Paseo Colón 850, C1063ACV, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Manuel Collaud
- Laboratorio de Fluidodinámica, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Av. Paseo Colón 850, C1063ACV, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Roberto Sosa
- Laboratorio de Fluidodinámica, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Av. Paseo Colón 850, C1063ACV, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ramiro Godoy-Diana
- Laboratoire de Physique et Mécanique des Milieux Hétérogènes (PMMH),CNRS UMR 7636, ESPCI Paris-Université PSL, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, F-75005 Paris, France
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7
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Fabian J, Siwanowicz I, Uhrhan M, Maeda M, Bomphrey RJ, Lin HT. Systematic characterization of wing mechanosensors that monitor airflow and wing deformations. iScience 2022; 25:104150. [PMID: 35465360 PMCID: PMC9018384 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal wings deform during flight in ways that can enhance lift, facilitate flight control, and mitigate damage. Monitoring the structural and aerodynamic state of the wing is challenging because deformations are passive, and the flow fields are unsteady; it requires distributed mechanosensors that respond to local airflow and strain on the wing. Without a complete map of the sensor arrays, it is impossible to model control strategies underpinned by them. Here, we present the first systematic characterization of mechanosensors on the dragonfly’s wings: morphology, distribution, and wiring. By combining a cross-species survey of sensor distribution with quantitative neuroanatomy and a high-fidelity finite element analysis, we show that the mechanosensors are well placed to perceive features of the wing dynamics relevant to flight. This work describes the wing sensory apparatus in its entirety and advances our understanding of the sensorimotor loop that facilitates exquisite flight control in animals with highly deformable wings. Dragonfly wings are innervated by an extensive collection of sensory neurons Mechanosensors are spread across the whole span of the wing with consistent patterns The axons of wing sensory neurons are scaled to compensate for transmission latencies Anatomically accurate models reveal wing strain fields that inform sensor distribution
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Fabian
- Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.,The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | - Huai-Ti Lin
- Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
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8
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Haider N, Shahzad A, Qadri MNM, Shams TA. Aerodynamic analysis of hummingbird-like hovering flight. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2021; 16:066018. [PMID: 34547732 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ac28eb] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Flapping wing micro aerial vehicles are studied as the substitute for fixed and rotary wing micro aerial vehicles because of the advantages such as agility, maneuverability, and employability in confined environments. Hummingbird's sustainable hovering capability inspires many researchers to develop micro aerial vehicles with similar dynamics. In this research, a wing of a ruby-throated hummingbird is modeled as an insect wing using membrane and stiffeners. The effect of flexibility on the aerodynamic performance of a wing in hovering flight has been studied numerically by using a fluid-structure interaction scheme at a Reynolds number of 3000. Different wings have been developed by using different positions and thicknesses of the stiffeners. The chordwise and spanwise flexural stiffnesses of all the wings modeled in this work are comparable to insects of similar span and chord length. When the position of the stiffener is varied, the best-performing wing has an average lift coefficient of 0.51. Subsequently, the average lift coefficient is increased to 0.56 when the appropriate thickness of the stiffeners is chosen. The best flexible wing outperforms its rigid counterpart and produces lift and power economy comparable to a real hummingbird's wing. That is, the average lift coefficient and power economy of 0.56 and 0.88 for the best flexible wing as compared to 0.61 and 1.07 for the hummingbird's wing. It can be concluded that a simple manufacturable flexible wing design based on appropriate positioning and thickness of stiffeners can serve as a potential candidate for bio-inspired flapping-wing micro aerial vehicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naeem Haider
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, College of Aeronautical Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Aamer Shahzad
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, College of Aeronautical Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Nafees Mumtaz Qadri
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, College of Aeronautical Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Taimur Ali Shams
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, College of Aeronautical Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
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9
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Weber AI, Daniel TL, Brunton BW. Wing structure and neural encoding jointly determine sensing strategies in insect flight. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1009195. [PMID: 34379622 PMCID: PMC8382179 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals rely on sensory feedback to generate accurate, reliable movements. In many flying insects, strain-sensitive neurons on the wings provide rapid feedback that is critical for stable flight control. While the impacts of wing structure on aerodynamic performance have been widely studied, the impacts of wing structure on sensing are largely unexplored. In this paper, we show how the structural properties of the wing and encoding by mechanosensory neurons interact to jointly determine optimal sensing strategies and performance. Specifically, we examine how neural sensors can be placed effectively on a flapping wing to detect body rotation about different axes, using a computational wing model with varying flexural stiffness. A small set of mechanosensors, conveying strain information at key locations with a single action potential per wingbeat, enable accurate detection of body rotation. Optimal sensor locations are concentrated at either the wing base or the wing tip, and they transition sharply as a function of both wing stiffness and neural threshold. Moreover, the sensing strategy and performance is robust to both external disturbances and sensor loss. Typically, only five sensors are needed to achieve near-peak accuracy, with a single sensor often providing accuracy well above chance. Our results show that small-amplitude, dynamic signals can be extracted efficiently with spatially and temporally sparse sensors in the context of flight. The demonstrated interaction of wing structure and neural encoding properties points to the importance of understanding each in the context of their joint evolution. In addition to generating forces for flight, insect wings also serve an important role as sensory structures, providing rapid feedback about wing bending that is used to stabilize flight. While much is known about how wing structure affects aerodynamic performance, the effects of wing structure on sensing remain unexplored. Using a computational model of a flapping wing, we examine how sensing strategies depend on wing stiffness and sensor properties. We show that body rotations can be accurately detected with a small number of sensors on the wing across a wide range of conditions. Optimal sensor locations are clustered at either the wing base or wing tip, depending on a combination of wing stiffness and sensor properties. Moreover, sensing performance is robust to multiple kinds of perturbations. Our work provides a basis for understanding how wing structure impacts incoming sensory information during flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison I. Weber
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Thomas L. Daniel
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Bingni W. Brunton
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
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Singh B, Yidris N, Basri AA, Pai R, Ahmad KA. Study of Mosquito Aerodynamics for Imitation as a Small Robot and Flight in a Low-Density Environment. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:511. [PMID: 34063196 PMCID: PMC8147425 DOI: 10.3390/mi12050511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In terms of their flight and unusual aerodynamic characteristics, mosquitoes have become a new insect of interest. Despite transmitting the most significant infectious diseases globally, mosquitoes are still among the great flyers. Depending on their size, they typically beat at a high flapping frequency in the range of 600 to 800 Hz. Flapping also lets them conceal their presence, flirt, and help them remain aloft. Their long, slender wings navigate between the most anterior and posterior wing positions through a stroke amplitude about 40 to 45°, way different from their natural counterparts (>120°). Most insects use leading-edge vortex for lift, but mosquitoes have additional aerodynamic characteristics: rotational drag, wake capture reinforcement of the trailing-edge vortex, and added mass effect. A comprehensive look at the use of these three mechanisms needs to be undertaken-the pros and cons of high-frequency, low-stroke angles, operating far beyond the normal kinematic boundary compared to other insects, and the impact on the design improvements of miniature drones and for flight in low-density atmospheres such as Mars. This paper systematically reviews these unique unsteady aerodynamic characteristics of mosquito flight, responding to the potential questions from some of these discoveries as per the existing literature. This paper also reviews state-of-the-art insect-inspired robots that are close in design to mosquitoes. The findings suggest that mosquito-based small robots can be an excellent choice for flight in a low-density environment such as Mars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balbir Singh
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (N.Y.); (A.A.B.)
- Department of Aeronautical and Automobile Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, India
| | - Noorfaizal Yidris
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (N.Y.); (A.A.B.)
| | - Adi Azriff Basri
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (N.Y.); (A.A.B.)
| | - Raghuvir Pai
- Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, India;
| | - Kamarul Arifin Ahmad
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (N.Y.); (A.A.B.)
- Aerospace Malaysia Research Centre, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
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Abstract
Insect wings are living, flexible structures composed of tubular veins and thin wing membrane. Wing veins can contain hemolymph (insect blood), tracheae, and nerves. Continuous flow of hemolymph within insect wings ensures that sensory hairs, structural elements such as resilin, and other living tissue within the wings remain functional. While it is well known that hemolymph circulates through insect wings, the extent of wing circulation (e.g., whether flow is present in every vein, and whether it is confined to the veins alone) is not well understood, especially for wings with complex wing venation. Over the last 100 years, scientists have developed experimental methods including microscopy, fluorescence, and thermography to observe flow in the wings. Recognizing and evaluating the importance of hemolymph movement in insect wings is critical in evaluating how the wings function both as flight appendages, as active sensors, and as thermoregulatory organs. In this review, we discuss the history of circulation in wings, past and present experimental techniques for measuring hemolymph, and broad implications for the field of hemodynamics in insect wings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary K Salcedo
- Department of Biomedical and Mechanical Engineering Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - John J Socha
- Department of Biomedical and Mechanical Engineering Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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12
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Krishna S, Cho M, Wehmann HN, Engels T, Lehmann FO. Wing Design in Flies: Properties and Aerodynamic Function. INSECTS 2020; 11:E466. [PMID: 32718051 PMCID: PMC7469158 DOI: 10.3390/insects11080466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The shape and function of insect wings tremendously vary between insect species. This review is engaged in how wing design determines the aerodynamic mechanisms with which wings produce an air momentum for body weight support and flight control. We work out the tradeoffs associated with aerodynamic key parameters such as vortex development and lift production, and link the various components of wing structure to flight power requirements and propulsion efficiency. A comparison between rectangular, ideal-shaped and natural-shaped wings shows the benefits and detriments of various wing shapes for gliding and flapping flight. The review expands on the function of three-dimensional wing structure, on the specific role of wing corrugation for vortex trapping and lift enhancement, and on the aerodynamic significance of wing flexibility for flight and body posture control. The presented comparison is mainly concerned with wings of flies because these animals serve as model systems for both sensorimotor integration and aerial propulsion in several areas of biology and engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Fritz-Olaf Lehmann
- Department of Animal Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, University of Rostock, 18059 Rostock, Germany; (S.K.); (M.C.); (H.-N.W.); (T.E.)
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