PEG-coated vesicles from Pluronic/lipid mixtures for the carrying of photoactive erythrosine derivatives

Photophysical characterization of xanthene dyes

The growing interest in using photodynamic therapy for cancer treatment and antimicrobial applications has prompted the search for different classes of dyes. In general, the protocols of these studies are different, making it difficult to compare their efficiency directly. Here, we apply a controlled protocol to analyze the photophysical properties of Erythrosin B, Eosin Y, and Rose Bengal using a set of optical techniques. The results show that Erythrosine has the best singlet oxygen generation capacity. This result, added to the well-known low toxicity of Erythrosine, makes it a good choice among the xanthenes for health applications.

"Effects of Redox Status on Immediate Hypericin-Mediated Photodynamic Therapy in Human Glioblastoma T98G Cell Line"

Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) is one of the most aggressive types of brain tumor. GBM can modulate glutathione (GSH) levels and regulate cellular redox state, which can explain its high resistance to chemotherapeutic agents. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a selective, nontoxic, and minimally invasive treatment approved for many types of cancer. PDT leads to cell death mainly by promoting the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Thus, in the current study, PDT with the photosensitizer hypericin (Hyp), formulated in mixed 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC)/biotinylated-pluronic F127 (F127-B) liposomes, in combination with the GSH synthesis inhibitor buthionine sulfoximine (BSO) were tested against T98G cell line of human glioblastoma. The mixed liposome was effective in delivering Hyp to the cells, leading to a dose relationship between Hyp and ROS levels. BSO potentiated Hyp cell uptake, decreased GSH levels regardless of Hyp concentration, and intensified ROS generation for 1.00 and 5.00 μmol L-1 Hyp. Nonetheless, cell death was more pronounced in the groups not treated with BSO, indicating that reduced GSH levels are not a decisive factor in achieving the PDT effects of Hyp. In conclusion, the mixed DPPC/F127-B liposomes were effective as a delivery system for Hyp. However, the combination of BSO and Hyp was not capable of optimizing PDT against T98G cells.

Elevating Therapeutic Penetration: Innovations in Drug Delivery for Enhanced Permeation and Skin Cancer Management

Skin cancer stands as a challenging global health concern, necessitating innovative approaches to cure deficiencies within traditional therapeutic modalities. While conventional drug delivery methods through injection or oral administration have long prevailed, the emergence of topical drug administration presents a compelling alternative. The skin, aside from offering a swift and painless procedure, serves as a reservoir, maintaining drug efficacy over extended durations. This comprehensive review seeks to shed light on the potential of nanotechnology as a promising avenue for efficacious cancer treatment, with a particular emphasis on skin cancer. Additionally, it underscores the transdermal approach as a viable strategy for addressing various types of cancer. This work also explores into the delivery of peptides and proteins along with in-depth explanations of different delivery systems currently under investigation for localized skin cancer treatment. Furthermore, the review discusses the formidable challenges that must be surmounted before these innovations can find their way into clinical practice, offering a roadmap for future research and therapeutic development.

Liposomes for Cancer Theranostics

Cancer is one of the most well-studied diseases and there have been significant advancements over the last few decades in understanding its molecular and cellular mechanisms. Although the current treatments (e.g., chemotherapy, radiotherapy, gene therapy and immunotherapy) have provided complete cancer remission for many patients, cancer still remains one of the most common causes of death in the world. The main reasons for the poor response rates for different cancers include the lack of drug specificity, drug resistance and toxic side effects (i.e., in healthy tissues). For addressing the limitations of conventional cancer treatments, nanotechnology has shown to be an important field for constructing different nanoparticles for destroying cancer cells. Due to their size (i.e., less than 1 μm), nanoparticles can deliver significant amounts of cancer drugs to tumors and are able to carry moieties (e.g., folate, peptides) for targeting specific types of cancer cells (i.e., through receptor-mediated endocytosis). Liposomes, composed of phospholipids and an interior aqueous core, can be used as specialized delivery vehicles as they can load different types of cancer therapy agents (e.g., drugs, photosensitizers, genetic material). In addition, the ability to load imaging agents (e.g., fluorophores, radioisotopes, MRI contrast media) enable these nanoparticles to be used for monitoring the progress of treatment. This review examines a wide variety of different liposomes for cancer theranostics, with the different available treatments (e.g., photothermal, photodynamic) and imaging modalities discussed for different cancers.

Monoolein-based nanodispersions for cutaneous co-delivery of methylene blue and metformin: Thermal and structural characterization and effects on the cutaneous barrier, skin penetration and cytotoxicity

This study evaluated the potential of monoolein (MO)-based nanodispersions to promote the cutaneous co-delivery of metformin (MET) and methylene blue (MB) for the treatment of non-melanoma skin cancer. MO-based nanodispersions were obtained using Kolliphor® P407 (KP) and/or sodium cholate (CH), and characterized concerning the structure, thermal stability, ability to disrupt the skin barrier, cutaneous permeation and retention of MB and MET. Additionally, the cytotoxic effect of MO nanodispersions-mediated combination therapy using MET and MB in A431 cells was evaluated. The nanodispersions exhibited nanometric size (<200 nm) and thermal and physical stability. Small angle X-ray scattering studies revealed multiple structures depending on composition. They were able to interact with stratum corneum lipid structure, increasing its fluidity. The effect of MO-nanodispersions on topical/transdermal delivery of MB and MET was composition-dependent. Nanodispersions with low MO content (5 %) and stabilized with KP and CH (0.05-0.10 %) were the most promising, enhancing the cutaneous delivery of MB and MET by 1.9 to 2.2-fold and 1.4 to 1.7-fold, respectively, compared to control. Cytotoxic studies revealed that the most promising MO nanodispersion-mediated combination therapy using MET and MB (1:1) reduced the IC₅₀ by 24-fold, compared to MB solution, and a further reduction (1.5-fold) was observed by MB photoactivation.

Pluronic® triblock copolymer-based nanoformulations for cancer therapy: A 10-year overview

This paper provides a review of the literature on the use of Pluronic® triblock copolymers for drug encapsulation over the last 10 years. A special focus is given to the progress of drug delivery systems (e.g., micelles, liposomes, micro/nanoemulsions, hydrogels and nanogels, and polymersomes and niosomes); the beneficial aspects of Pluronic® triblock copolymers as biological response modifiers and as pharmaceutical additives, adjuvants, and stabilizers, are also discussed. The advantages and limitations encountered in developing site-specific targeting approaches based on Pluronic-based nanostructures in cancer treatment are highlighted, in addition to innovative examples for improving tumor cytotoxicity while reducing side effects.

Interaction of triblock copolymers (Pluronic®) with DMPC vesicles: a photophysical and computational study

Pluronic/lipid mix promises stealth liposomes with long circulation time and long-term stability for pharmaceutical applications. However, the influence of Pluronics on several aspects of lipid membranes has not been fully elucidated. Herein it was described the effect of Pluronics on the structured water, alkyl chain conformation, and kinetic stability of dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) liposomes using interfacial and deeper fluorescent probes along with computational molecular modeling data. Interfacial water changed as a function of Pluronics' hydrophobicity with polypropylene oxide (PPO) anchoring the copolymers in the lipid bilayer. Pluronics with more than 30-40 PO units had facilitated penetration at the bilayer while shorter PPO favored a more interfacial interaction. Low Pluronic concentrations provided long-term stability of vesicles by steric effects of polyethylene oxide (PEO), but high amounts destabilized the vesicles as a sum of water-bridge cleavage at the polar head group and the reduced alkyl-alkyl interactions among the lipids. The high kinetic stability of Pluronic/DMPC vesicles is a proof-of-concept of its advantages and applicability in nanotechnology over conventional liposome-based pharmaceutical products for future biomedical applications.

Current Perspectives on Synthetic Compartments for Biomedical Applications

Nano- and micrometer-sized compartments composed of synthetic polymers are designed to mimic spatial and temporal divisions found in nature. Self-assembly of polymers into compartments such as polymersomes, giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs), layer-by-layer (LbL) capsules, capsosomes, or polyion complex vesicles (PICsomes) allows for the separation of defined environments from the exterior. These compartments can be further engineered through the incorporation of (bio)molecules within the lumen or into the membrane, while the membrane can be decorated with functional moieties to produce catalytic compartments with defined structures and functions. Nanometer-sized compartments are used for imaging, theranostic, and therapeutic applications as a more mechanically stable alternative to liposomes, and through the encapsulation of catalytic molecules, i.e., enzymes, catalytic compartments can localize and act in vivo. On the micrometer scale, such biohybrid systems are used to encapsulate model proteins and form multicompartmentalized structures through the combination of multiple compartments, reaching closer to the creation of artificial organelles and cells. Significant progress in therapeutic applications and modeling strategies has been achieved through both the creation of polymers with tailored properties and functionalizations and novel techniques for their assembly.

Organic Photo-antimicrobials: Principles, Molecule Design, and Applications

The emergence of multi-drug-resistant pathogens threatens the healthcare systems world-wide. Recent advances in phototherapy (PT) approaches mediated by photo-antimicrobials (PAMs) provide new opportunities for the current serious antibiotic resistance. During the PT treatment, reactive oxygen species or heat produced by PAMs would react with the cell membrane, consequently leaking cytoplasm components and effectively eradicating different pathogens like bacteria, fungi, viruses, and even parasites. This Perspective will concentrate on the development of different organic photo-antimicrobials (OPAMs) and their application as practical therapeutic agents into therapy for local infections, wound dressings, and removal of biofilms from medical devices. We also discuss how to design highly efficient OPAMs by modifying the chemical structure or conjugating with a targeting component. Moreover, this Perspective provides a discussion of the general challenges and direction for OPAMs and what further needs to be done. It is hoped that through this overview, OPAMs can prosper and will be more widely used for microbial infections in the future, especially at a time when the global COVID-19 epidemic is getting more serious.

Hydrophobic ion-pairing assembled liposomal Rhein with efficient loading for acute pancreatitis treatment

AIM

The present study aimed to develop liposomal Rhein by employing a hydrophobic ion-pairing technique (HIP) for improved pancreatitis therapy.

METHODS

F127 modified liposomal Rhein (F127-RPC-Lip) was prepared using a two-step process consisting of complexation first, followed by a film-ultrasonic dispersion step. The drug-phospholipid interaction was characterised by FT-IR and P-XRD. Particle size and morphology were investigated using DLS and TEM, respectively. Biodistribution and therapeutic efficacy of F127-RPC-Lip were evaluated in a rat model of acute pancreatitis.

RESULTS

F127-RPC-Lip achieved efficient drug encapsulation after complexation with lipids through non-covalent interactions and had an average hydrodynamic diameter of about 141 nm. F127-RPC-Lip demonstrated slower drug release (55.90 ± 3.60%, w/w) than Rhein solution (90.27 ± 5.11%) within 24 h. Compared with Rhein, F127-RPC-Lip exhibited prolonged systemic circulation time, superior drug distribution, and attenuated injury in the pancreas of rats post-injection.

CONCLUSIONS

HIP-assembled liposomes are a promising strategy for Rhein in treating pancreatitis.

Photoactivation of Erythrosine in simulated body fluids

Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) is a powerful technique for the treatment of cancer and non-cancerous diseases. The precise PDT treatment protocol definition must consider the performance difference between in vitroand in vivoapplications. This also occurs in other biological studies, and to partially overcome this difficulty, the simulated body fluids are generally applied as a prior understanding of the particularities of the different systems. However, in PDT these studies are scarce. In this work, we investigated the photoactivation of Erythrosine, a photosensitizer widely used in PDT, in different simulated body fluids. Differences in the photodegradation kinetics, triplet lifetime, and singlet oxygen generation were observed. The results can help to explain and to define PDT application protocols.

Engineering of levodopa inhalable microparticles in combination with leucine and dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine by spray drying technique

The aim of this work was to study the effect of concomitant use of leucine and dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, in different ratios, on aerosolization performance of levodopa. Three-component formulations were selected based on a central composite design using percentages of leucine and dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine as the independent variables. Particle size, surface roughness index, surface phosphorus and fine particle fraction were considered as dependent variables in the model. The spray dried samples were also characterized to determine their particle shape and solid state nature. levodopa was spray dried with 10-40% w/w of the excipients to prepare two- or three-component formulations. A crystalline nature was determined for levodopa in all samples spray dried from water:ethanol (30:70 v/v). Roughness in surface of the processed particles increased with increasing total concentration of the excipients, specially above 25% w/w. Analysis of phosphorus on the surface demonstrated that three-component formulations prepared with combination of 12.5% w/w leucine had the highest amount of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine in the surface, regardless of its percentage used in the initial feed. A combination of 12.43% w/w of leucine and 9.80% w/w of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine used in formulation exhibited the highest fine particle fraction (72.63%). It can be concluded that spray drying of levodopa with a suitable combination of both excipients leads to production of a three-component formulation of crystalline levodopa, with an aerosolization performance which is significantly higher than two-component formulations composed of the drug with either leucine or dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine.

Pluronic-based nanovehicles: Recent advances in anticancer therapeutic applications

Pluronics are a class of amphiphilic tri-block copolymers with wide pharmaceutical applicability. In the past decades, the ability to form biocompatible nanosized micelles was exploited to formulate stable drug nanovehicles with potential use in antitumor therapy. Due to the great potential for tuning physical and structural properties of Pluronic unimers, a panoply of drug or polynucleotide-loaded micelles was prepared and tested for their antitumoral activity. The attractive inherent antitumor properties of Pluronic polymers in combination with cell targeting and stimuli-responsive ligands greatly improved antitumoral therapeutic effects of tested drugs. In spite of that, the extraordinary complexity of biological challenges in the delivery of micellar drug payload makes their therapeutic potential still not exploited to the fullest. In this review paper we attempt to present the latest developments in the field of Pluronic based nanovehicles and their application in anticancer therapy with an overview of the chemistry involved in the preparation of these nanovehicles.

Theranostic verteporfin- loaded lipid-polymer liposome for photodynamic applications

In this study we report a novel theranostic lipid-polymer liposome, obtained from DPPC and the triblock copolymer F127 covalently modified with 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (CF) for photodynamic applications. Due to the presence of F127, small unilamellar vesicle (SUV) liposomes were synthesized by a simple and fast thin-film hydration method without the need for an extrusion process. The vesicles have around 100 nm, low polydispersity and superb solution stability. The clinically used photosensitizer verteporfin (VP) was entrapped into the vesicles, mostly in monomeric form, with 90% loading efficiency. Stern-Volmer and fluorescence lifetime assays showed heterogeneous distribution of the VP and CF into the vesicles, ensuring the integrity of their individual photophysical properties. The theranostic properties were entirely photoactivatable and can be trigged by a unique wavelength (470 nm). The feasibility of the system was tested against the Glioblastoma multiforme cell line T98G. Cellular uptake by time-resolved fluorescence microscopy showed monomerized VP (monoexponential decay, 6.0 ns) at nucleus level, while CF was detected at the membrane by fluorescence microscopy. The strategy's success was supported by the reduction of 98% in the viability of T98G cells by the photoactivated lipid-polymer liposome with [VP] = 1.0 μmol L^-1. Therefore, the novel theranostic liposome is a potential system for use in cancer and ocular disease therapies.

Dynamic Behavior of the Structural Phase Transition of Hydrogel Formation Induced by Temperature Ramp and Addition of Ibuprofen

Understanding the dynamic behavior of hydrogel formation induced by a temperature ramp is essential for the design of gel-based injectable formulation as drug-delivery vehicles. In this study, the dynamic behavior of the hydrogel formation of Pluronic F108 aqueous solutions within different heating rates was explored in both macroscopic and microscopic views. It was discovered that when the heating rate is increased, the gelation temperature window (hard gel region) shrinks and the mechanical strength of the hydrogel decreases. A given system at different heating rates would lead to different crystalline structural evolutions. The time-resolved small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) experiments at a heating rate of 10 °C/min disclose that the crystalline structure of micelle packing in the hydrogel exhibits a series of transitions: hexagonal close-packed (HCP) to face-centered cubic (FCC) and body-centered cubic (BCC) structures coexisting and then to the BCC structure along with the increasing temperature. For the system at equilibrium, the BCC structure exclusively dominates the system. Furthermore, the addition of a hydrophobic model drug (ibuprofen) to the F108 aqueous solution promotes hard gel formation at even lower temperatures and concentrations of F108. The SAXS results for the system with ibuprofen at a heating rate of 10 °C/min demonstrate a mixture of FCC and BCC structures coexisting over the whole gelation window compared to the BCC structure that exclusively dominates the system at equilibrium. The addition of ibuprofen would alter the structural evolution to change the delivery path of the encapsulated drug, which is significantly related to the performance of drug release.

Nanotechnology approaches in the current therapy of skin cancer

Skin cancer is a high burden disease with a high impact on global health. Conventional therapies have several drawbacks; thus, the development of effective therapies is required. In this context, nanotechnology approaches are an attractive strategy for cancer therapy because they enable the efficient delivery of drugs and other bioactive molecules to target tissues with low toxic effects. In this review, nanotechnological tools for skin cancer will be summarized and discussed. First, pathology and conventional therapies will be presented, followed by the challenges of skin cancer therapy. Then, the main features of developing efficient nanosystems will be discussed, and next, the most commonly used nanoparticles (NPs) described in the literature for skin cancer therapy will be presented. Subsequently, the use of NPs to deliver chemotherapeutics, immune and vaccine molecules and nucleic acids will be reviewed and discussed as will the combination of physical methods and NPs. Finally, multifunctional delivery systems to codeliver anticancer therapeutic agents containing or not surface functionalization will be summarized.

Nanoparticles for topical drug delivery: Potential for skin cancer treatment

Nanoparticles offer new opportunities for the treatment of skin diseases. The barrier function of the skin poses a significant challenge for nanoparticles to permeate into the tissue, although the barrier is partially compromised in case of injury or inflammation, as in the case of skin cancer. This may facilitate the penetration of nanoparticles. Extensive research has gone into developing nanoparticles for topical delivery; however, relatively little progress has been made in translating them to the clinic for treating skin cancers. We summarize the types of skin cancers and practices in current clinical management. The review provides a comprehensive outlook of the various nanoparticle technologies tested for topical therapy of skin cancers and summarizes the obstacles that impede its progress from the bench-to-bedside. The review also aims to provide an understanding of the pathways that govern nanoparticle penetration into the skin and a critical analysis of the approaches used to study nanoparticle interactions within the tissue.

"Biotin-targeted mixed liposomes: A smart strategy for selective release of a photosensitizer agent in cancer cells"

The high incidence of cancer, necessity of treatment, and prognosis times are urgent issues that need to be addressed. In this work, we present DPPC liposomes coated with F127 triblock copolymers as a promising alternative in drug delivery systems for cancer therapy. The proposed mixed liposomes exhibit adequate size, high stability, and passive targeting that result from the EPR effect. An interesting strategy to obtain both passive and active targeting is the vectorization with a covalent bond between F127 and Biotin (a vitamin). Cancer cells can overexpress Biotin receptors, such as Avidin. Here, we evaluate the cytotoxic effects of the erythrosine-decyl ester (ERYDEC). This is a photosensitizer that can be utilized in photodynamic therapy (PDT) and incorporated in DPPC liposomes coated with F127 (F127/DPPC) and the biotinylated-F127 (F127-B/DPPC). The results showed that DPPC liposomes were efficiently mixed with common F127 or F127B, exhibiting adequate physical properties with simple and low-cost preparation. An HABA/Avidin assay showed the amount of Biotin available at the liposome surface. In addition, ERYDEC interaction with lipid vesicles showed high encapsulating efficiency and slow release kinetics. The ERYDEC monomeric species are represented by high light absorption and high singlet oxygen generation (1O₂), which confirm the presence of the drug in its monomeric state, as required for PDT. The ERYDEC/liposome system showed high stability and absence of significant cytotoxic effects (absence of light) in fibroblasts of the Mus musculus cell line. In addition, phototoxicity studies showed that ERYDEC/liposomes were able to inhibit cancer cells. However, in the biotinylated system, the effect was much greater than the common F127 coating. This dramatically decreased the inhibitory concentration of CC₅₀ and CC₉₀. In addition, cellular uptake studies based on fluorescence properties of ERYDEC showed that a two-hour incubation period was enough for the uptake by the cell. Therefore, the new vectorized-coated liposome is a potential system for use in cancer treatments, considering that it is a theranostic platform.

Transforming an inert nanopolymer into broad-spectrum bactericidal by superstructure tuning

Poloxamer block copolymers (also known as Pluronic®) are particularly useful for drug delivery and self-assembly techniques. These nanopolymers are generally considered to be biologically inert and they were used to generate only bacteria repellent surfaces but keeps bacteria alive and as a latent threat. However, the inherent capabilities of these nanopolymers to kill bacteria have been largely overlooked. Here, we report that Pluronic shaped as superstructures (self-organized array of micelles) in fact possess a broad-spectrum bactericidal activity (capability of killing bacteria) similar to that shown for some antibiotics. This further represents the first report that shows that appropriate control of superstructured mesophase architecture is a key parameter for bactericidal efficacy. Based on this finding, we have developed a highly bactericidal coating (>99.9% kill) against all tested Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis) and Gram-negative (Salmonella typhimurium LT2, Escherichia coli K12 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1) bacteria which moreover allows the adhesion and proliferation of mammalian cells. The inexpensiveness and ease of production make these versatile nanopolymer structures a powerful tool for the development of a new generation of highly effective antimicrobial coatings.