Low-dose combined oral contraceptive and cervicovaginal shedding of human immunodeficiency virus

Effect of the depot medroxyprogesterone acetate injectable and levonorgestrel implant on HIV genital shedding: a randomized trial

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effect of the depot medroxyprogesterone acetate injectable (DMPA) and of the levonorgestrel (LNG) implant on genital HIV shedding among women receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART).

METHODS

We randomized HIV-infected Malawian women to either DMPA or LNG implant from May 2014 to April 2015. HIV RNA was measured in cervicovaginal lavage (CVL) fluid and TearFlo Strips (TFS), and HIV DNA was measured in cells collected by CVL. We compared the frequency and magnitude of HIV genital shedding before and for 6 months after initiation of contraception and between arms among women receiving ART. We also compared genital HIV RNA levels obtained by sample type (TFS versus CVL).

RESULTS

We analyzed data for 68 HIV-infected women receiving ART: 33 randomized to DMPA and 35 randomized to the LNG implant. Overall, HIV RNA was more often detectable and the quantity was higher on TFS compared with CVL. HIV DNA was detected very rarely in CVL cell samples (4 of 360 samples). The frequency of genital shedding and the genital HIV quantity did not increase after contraceptive initiation with either DMPA or LNG implant among women receiving ART.

CONCLUSIONS

HIV-infected women receiving ART initiating contraception with either DMPA or LNG implant did not have any increase in genital HIV shedding during the first 6 months of contraceptive use. These findings are consistent with growing evidence that progestin contraception is not associated with increased HIV transmission risk from such women to their male partners. Consistent with other studies, genital HIV RNA detection was higher in TFS than in CVL fluid.

IMPLICATIONS

In this randomized trial, neither DMPA nor the LNG implant, two of the most commonly used hormonal contraceptives among African women with HIV, was associated with increased genital HIV shedding in HIV-infected women receiving ART. These findings are reassuring and add to the currently limited information available for the highly effective contraceptive, LNG implant.

A randomized clinical trial on the effects of progestin contraception in the genital tract of HIV-infected and uninfected women in Lilongwe, Malawi: Addressing evolving research priorities

Hormonal contraception is central in the prevention of unintended pregnancy; however there are concerns that certain methods may increase the risk of HIV acquisition and transmission. Hormonal contraceptives may modify the genital mucosa in several ways, however the mechanisms are incompletely understood. Few studies have examined genital HIV shedding prospectively before and after initiation of hormonal contraception. The effects of hormonal contraception on genital HIV shedding in the setting of antiretroviral therapy (ART) are also unknown. We designed a pilot clinical trial in which HIV-infected and uninfected women were randomized to either depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) injectable or levonorgestrel (LNG) implant in Lilongwe, Malawi. The objectives were to: 1) assess the effect and compare the impact of type of progestin contraception (injectable versus implant) on HIV genital shedding among HIV-infected women, 2) assess the effect and compare the impact of type of progestin contraception on inflammatory/immune markers in the genital tract of both HIV-infected and uninfected women, and 3) assess the interaction of progestin contraception and ART by examining contraceptive efficacy and ART efficacy. An additional study aim was to determine the feasibility and need for a larger study of determinants of HIV transmissibility and acquisition. As injectable contraception is widely used in many parts of the world with high HIV prevalence, this study will provide important information in determining the need for and feasibility of a larger study to address these questions that can impact the lives of millions of women living with or at risk for HIV.

Contraception for HIV-Infected Adolescents

Access to high-quality reproductive health care is important for adolescents and young adults with HIV infection to prevent unintended pregnancies, sexually transmitted infections, and secondary transmission of HIV to partners and children. As perinatally HIV-infected children mature into adolescence and adulthood and new HIV infections among adolescents and young adults continue to occur in the United States, medical providers taking care of such individuals often face issues related to sexual and reproductive health. Challenges including drug interactions between several hormonal methods and antiretroviral agents make decisions regarding contraceptive options more complex for these adolescents. Dual protection, defined as the use of an effective contraceptive along with condoms, should be central to ongoing discussions with HIV-infected young women and couples wishing to avoid pregnancy. Last, reproductive health discussions need to be integrated with discussions on HIV care, because a reduction in plasma HIV viral load below the level of detection (an "undetectable viral load") is essential for the individual's health as well as for a reduction in HIV transmission to partners and children.

Contraceptive options for HIV-positive women: making evidence-based, patient-centred decisions

OBJECTIVES

Women of reproductive age represent a large proportion of the global population living with HIV/AIDS. With improvements in morbidity and mortality since the advent of combination antiretroviral therapy, contraception and pregnancy planning are an increasingly important issue for women living with HIV. This review aims to outline the key considerations when choosing contraceptive methods in HIV-positive women and provides a review of the literature to inform decision-making.

METHODS

Pubmed was searched using the terms 'HIV', 'contraception', 'HIV progression', 'HIV acquisition', 'HIV transmission' and the combination of 'antiretroviral' and 'contraception'. Abstracts were reviewed and relevant articles were retrieved. Reference lists were also reviewed for pertinent citations.

RESULTS

HIV and contraceptive methods can interact in several clinically meaningful ways. Concomitant use may result in altered contraceptive efficacy, drug-drug interactions, or increased toxicity. Hormonal contraceptives have not been shown to affect HIV progression. Notably, the impact of hormonal contraceptives on HIV transmission and acquisition remains unclear, particularly for injectable forms. Data are lacking on several newer methods of contraception including contraceptive rings, patches and intrauterine systems.

CONCLUSIONS

Effective, reliable contraception is important for HIV-positive women. Efficacy, toxicity, drug interactions, and potential impacts on HIV disease progression, transmission, and acquisition must be assessed when making clinical decisions.

Contraceptive methods and risk of HIV acquisition or female-to-male transmission

Effective family planning with modern contraception is an important intervention to prevent unintended pregnancies which also provides personal, familial, and societal benefits. Contraception is also the most cost-effective strategy to reduce the burden of mother-to-child HIV transmission for women living with HIV who wish to prevent pregnancy. There are concerns, however, that certain contraceptive methods, in particular the injectable contraceptive depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA), may increase a woman's risk of acquiring HIV or transmitting it to uninfected males. These concerns, if confirmed, could potentially have large public health implications. This paper briefly reviews the literature on use of contraception among women living with HIV or at high risk of HIV infection. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations place no restrictions on the use of hormonal contraceptive methods by women with or at high risk of HIV infection, although a clarification recommends that, given uncertainty in the current literature, women at high risk of HIV who choose progestogen-only injectable contraceptives should be informed that it may or may not increase their risk of HIV acquisition and should also be informed about and have access to HIV preventive measures, including male or female condoms.

Hormonal contraceptive use and female-to-male HIV transmission: a systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence

OBJECTIVE

To systematically review epidemiologic evidence assessing whether hormonal contraception alters the risk of HIV transmission from an HIV-positive woman to an HIV-negative male partner.

DESIGN

Systematic review.

METHODS

We included articles published or in press through December 15, 2011. We assessed studies with direct evidence on hormonal contraception use and HIV transmission, and summarized studies with indirect evidence related to genital or plasma viral load.

RESULTS

: One study provided direct evidence on oral contraceptive pills (OCPs) or injectable contraception and female-to-male HIV transmission; both injectables [Cox-adjusted hazard ratio (adjHR) 1.95, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.06-3.58; marginal structural model (MSM) adjusted odds ratio (adjOR) 3.01, 95% CI 1.47-6.16] and OCPs (Cox adjHR 2.09, 95% CI 0.75-5.84; MSM adjOR 2.35, 95% CI 0.79-6.95) generated elevated point estimates, but only estimates for injectables were significant. Findings from 11 indirect studies assessing various hormonal contraception methods and viral genital shedding or setpoint were mixed, and seven of eight studies indicated no adverse effect of various hormonal contraception methods on plasma viral load.

CONCLUSION

The only direct study on OCPs or injectable contraception and female-to-male HIV transmission suggests increased risk with the use of injectables. Given the potential for confounding in observational data, the paucity of direct evidence on this subject, and mixed indirect evidence, additional evidence is needed.