The generalizability of working-memory capacity in the sport domain

Olympic team rowers and team swimmers show altered functional brain activation during working memory and action inhibition

BACKGROUND

High-level expertise in team-sports is associated with superior performance on executive functions (EFs) such as working memory (WM) and action inhibition, and with altered activation of brain areas related to these EFs. In most such studies, athletes were sampled from the domain of dynamic (i.e., open-skill) team-sports (e.g., soccer players). Whether static (i.e., closed-skill) team-sports athletes (e.g., rowers and synchronized swimmers) also show superior EFs performance and differential EF-related functional brain activation remains unknown.

METHODS

We recruited 14 elite closed-skill athletes, all national champions, and internationally competitive in various rowing disciplines, as well as 14 controls matched on gender, age, and education, and had them perform working memory and action inhibition (stop-signal) tasks during fMRI scanning.

RESULTS

Group differences in performance in either task failed to obtain statistical significance, although athletes showed a numerical trend toward higher WM capacity than controls. Importantly, task-related BOLD responses suggested that Olympic closed-skill team athletes show stronger recruitment of brain areas that emphasize relatively stable task demands and weaker engagement of brain areas that emphasize rapidly changing demands imposed by extraneous stimulation.

CONCLUSION

Functional brain imaging data suggest elite closed-skill athletes may employ different cognitive strategies.

Dual-Tasks in Soccer: Effects of Players' Experience and Task Condition on Physical Performance

In this study, we examined whether experience level and various dual motor and cognitive or single tasks influenced young soccer players' physical performance during small-sided games. Participants were 72 players from U-13 (n = 36) and U-17 (n = 36) groups who participated in 3-to-a-side small-sided games under four experimental conditions: control, a secondary motor task, an additional related secondary cognitive task, and an additional secondary non-specific task. We used GPS devices to measure physical performance in terms of distances covered and accelerations at different thresholds. We found no significant interaction effect between player experience and task condition (p = .540), meaning that dual tasks had comparable effects on players of different experience levels. There were significant main effects of both experience level (p < .001) and condition (p < .001) on most physically related variables. Older players outperformed younger ones, particularly in high-intensity actions. While secondary motor tasks decreased physical performance, secondary cognitive tasks, irrespective of specificity, did not impair players' performances. In conclusion, experience level did not influence the players' physical response to dual tasks, and a secondary motor task was more disruptive to physical performance than either of two types of secondary cognitive tasks. Cognitive tasks can be incorporated into soccer training without compromising physical performance.

On the importance of working memory in the driving safety field: A systematic review

In recent years, many studies have used poor cognitive functions to explain risk safety differences among drivers. Working memory is a cognitive function with information storage and attentional control that plays a crucial role in driver information processing. Furthermore, it is inextricably linked to parameters such as driving performance, driving eye movements and driving neurophysiology, which have a significant impact on drivers' risky behavior and crash risk. In particular, crash risk is a serious risk to social safety and economic development. For this reason, it is necessary to understand how risk-related working memory affects driving so that pre-driving safety pre-training programs and in-vehicle safety assistance systems for driving can be developed accordingly, contributing to the development of semi-autonomous vehicles and even autonomous vehicles. In this paper, a systematic search of the literature over the past 23 years resulted in 78 articles that met the eligibility criteria and quality assessment. The results show that higher working memory capacity, as measured neuropsychologically, is associated with more consistent and safer driving-related parameters for drivers (e.g., lane keeping) and may be related to pupil dilation during risk perception while driving, which is associated with driving outcomes (tickets, pull-overs, penalty points and fines,and driving accidents) is closely related to the perceived usefulness of the human-machine interface, reaction time, standard deviation of steering wheel corners, etc. when the autonomous driving takes over. In addition, higher working memory load interference was associated with more inconsistent and unsafe driving-related parameters (including but not limited to eye movements, electrophysiology, etc.), with higher working memory load being associated with easier driver concentration on the road, faster heart rate, lower heart rate variability, and lower oxyhemoglobin (OxyHb) and deoxyhemoglobin (DeoxyHb). Only a limited number of studies have simultaneously investigated the relationship between working memory capacity, working memory load and driving, showing an interaction between working memory capacity and working memory load on lane change initiation and lane change correctness, with working memory capacity acting as a covariate that mediated the effect of working memory load on braking reaction time. In addition, working memory-related cognitive training had a transfer effect on improving driving ability. Overall, working memory capacity determines the upper limit of the number of working memory attention resources, while working memory load occupies part of the working memory attention resources, thus influencing information perception, decision judgment, operational response, and collision avoidance in driving. Future effective interventions for safe driving can be combined with capacity training and load alerting. These findings contribute to our understanding of the role of working memory in driving and provide new insights into the design of driver safety training programs and automated driving personalized in-vehicle safety systems and roadside devices such as signage.

Changes in Perceived Mental Load and Motor Performance during Practice-to-Learn and Practice-to-Maintain in Basketball

BACKGROUND

Attentional resource allocation during sports practice is associated with the players' perceived mental load. However, few ecological studies address this problem by considering the players' characteristics (e.g., practice experience, skill and cognition). Therefore, this study aimed to analyse the dose-response effect of two different types of practice, each with different learning objectives, on mental load and motor performance by using a linear mixed model analysis.

METHOD

Forty-four university students (age 20.36 ± 3.13 years) participated in this study. Two sessions were conducted, one based on a standard rules 1 × 1 basketball situation ("practice to maintain") and one with motor, temporal and spatial restrictions in 1 × 1 tasks ("practice to learn").

RESULTS

"Practice to learn" produced a higher perceived mental load (NASA-TLX scale) and a worse performance than "practice to maintain", but was moderated by experience and inhibition (p = 0.001). The same happens in the most demanding restriction (i.e., temporal, p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

The results showed that increasing the difficulty of 1 × 1 situations through restrictions harmed the player's performance and increased their perceived mental load. These effects were moderated by previous basketball experience and the player's inhibition capacity, so the difficulty adjustment should be based on the athletes themselves.

Technical skills in complex tennis situations: Dutch talented players U15 compared to players U17

Introduction

Technical skills in complex situations appear crucial for progress towards elite tennis performance. However, it is unknown how these skills develop in different age categories in a group of talented youth players. The aim of this study is to evaluate possible differences in technical skills among Dutch talented youth tennis players U15 compared to U17.

Methods

A total of 19 players (12 males, 7 females; age 14.6 ± 1.4 years) were tested on ball speed, accuracy, percentage errors and spin rate using the on-court Dutch Technical-Tactical Tennis Test. With a ball machine, four games were simulated which were either fixed (game 1 and game 2) or variable (game 3 and game 4), depending on the complexity of the task. Each game consisted of two offensive, two neutral and two defensive rallies, representing different tactical situations.

Results

A two-way ANOVA revealed a statistically significant interaction between the effects of age category and sex for ball speed (F(1,15) = 5.472, p = 0.034, η ² = 0.267), indicating that males U17 produced higher ball speed compared to males U15, whereas no differences were found between females U15 and U17. A one-way ANCOVA showed that, regardless of sex, players U17 scored significantly higher on accuracy than players U15 (F(1,16) = 5.021, p = 0.040, η ² = 0.239). No differences were found between players U15 and U17 for spin rate and percentage errors (p > .05), although there was a medium to large effect size for males U17 to produce higher spin rates compared to males U15. A closer examination of accuracy revealed that players U17 scored significantly higher compared to players U15 in game 4 (F(1,17) = 6.358, p = .022, η ² = .272) and in defensive situations (F(1,17) = 9.602, p = .007, η ² = .361).

Discussion

In conclusion, the results of the current study suggest that technical skills, especially ball speed for males and accuracy in complex situations for both males and females, continue to develop in adolescence in talented tennis players. There is an increased understanding about underlying technical skills that contribute to progress towards elite tennis performance. To effectively develop technical skills, coaches are encouraged to design specific practices where these skills are performed in complex situations under high cognitive and temporal pressure.

Stereotype Threat Effect on a Simple Motor Task: An Investigation of the Visuo-Spatial Working Memory

Purpose: Based on the Chalabaev et al. (2013) study showing that in a Stereotype Threat (ST) situation the velocity of force production in a simple motor task can be affected, this study aimed to replicate this result and tested the role of Visuo-Spatial Working Memory (VSWM) in the ST effect. Method: Twenty one female athletes performed maximum voluntary contractions of the knee extensor muscles on an isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex), under neutral, ST, and ST with mental imagery conditions. The Rate Force of Development (RFD), a velocity indicator, was measured under each condition. VSWM and avoidance-related processes were measured in at a separate time. Results: Data confirmed that the RFD decreased when the stereotype threat was introduced, but also that mental imagery of the movement in the pre-contraction stage prevented this effect. Moreover, in the ST condition avoidance-related processes did not affect the RFD. In contrast, higher VSWM performance was associated with higher RFD. Conclusion: These findings suggest that the ST effects on a simple motor task can be explained by an alteration of working memory which impairs movement preparatory processes in the pre-contraction stage.

Table tennis expertise influences dual-task costs in timed and self-initiated tasks

Theories on resource sharing predict that performances will suffer under dual-task conditions. However, increases in skill level should decrease attentional resources needed to perform a task, resulting in a reduction of dual-task costs. The current study investigates whether table tennis experts are better able than novices to keep up their motor and cognitive performances in a dual-task situation. Two different cognitive tasks, 3-back and Counting Backwards in steps of 7, and two different table tennis tasks, returns and serves, were assessed in each possible cognitive-motor task combination in a within-subjects design. While 3-back and returns were timed, Counting Backwards and serves were self-initiated. We assumed that self-initiated tasks increase dual-task costs, since the scheduling of the responses requires attentional resources. As predicted, dual-task costs of novices were considerably higher (35%) than those of experts, who did not show costs (-1%). The predicted increase of costs for self-initiated tasks was only observed in the experts, while novices showed a tendency to reduce their dual-task costs for self-initiated tasks. It is argued that this is due to the psychometric properties of the underlying task, since timed tasks were specified by a fixed number of targets and responses. We conclude that cognitive-motor dual-task costs may be a valuable measure of sporting skill, over and above "pure" motor or cognitive performances.

Tennis expertise reduces costs in cognition but not in motor skills in a cognitive-motor dual-task condition

Dual-process theories predict performance reductions under dual-task situations (= situations where two tasks have to be processed and executed simultaneously), because limited cognitive resources have to be shared between concurrent tasks. Increases in expertise should reduce the attentional resources needed to perform a motor task, leading to reduced dual-task costs. The current studies investigated whether expert tennis players (performance ratings of 1 to 14 in the German system) show smaller costs compared to intermediate players (performance ratings of 15 to 23). Two studies assessed single- and dual-task performance in a within-subject design in the same tennis task, returning balls into a target field. Two different cognitive tasks were used, a 3-back working memory task in study 1, and a vocabulary-learning task (episodic memory) in study 2. As predicted, performance in both cognitive tasks was reduced during dual-tasking, while the accuracy of tennis returns remained stable under cognitive challenge. These findings indicate that skilled tennis players show a task-prioritization strategy in favor of the tennis task in a dual-task situation. In study 1, intermediate players showed higher overall dual-task costs than experts, but the group differences in dual-task costs did not reach significance in study 2. This may have been due to less pronounced expertise-differences between the groups in study 2. The findings replicate and extend previous expertise studies in sports to the domain of tennis. We argue that an athlete's ability to keep up cognitive and motor performances in challenging dual-task situations may be a valid indicator of skill level.

Implicit motor learning in primary school children: A systematic review

The aim of this study was to assess the current state of evidence and methodological quality of studies on implicit and explicit motor learning in both typically developing children and children with developmental disorders. A systematic literature review was conducted on the experimental literature published up to April 2020. A total of 25 studies were included. Studies were evaluated on methodological quality, paradigm used, and level of evidence. The results showed that implicit paradigms are as effective as explicit paradigms in both groups of children. Studies are predominantly experimental in nature involving mostly upper limb aiming tasks. The few studies that were performed outside the lab (n = 5) suggest superior efficacy of the implicit paradigm. Methodological quality varied between studies and was not always of sufficient standard to allow conclusions. In particular, manipulation checks were only performed in 13 studies (52% of all studies), limiting conclusions. Further progress can be made by focussing on improving methodological quality through retention testing by the inclusion of a control group, by the inclusion of a manipulation check, and via assessment of relevant co-variables, such as working memory, age, and motor competence.

Prior cortical activity differences during an action observation plus motor imagery task related to motor adaptation performance of a coordinated multi-limb complex task

Motor adaptation is the ability to develop new motor skills that makes performing a consolidated motor task under different psychophysical conditions possible. There exists a proven relationship between prior brain activity at rest and motor adaptation. However, the brain activity at rest is highly variable both between and within subjects. Here we hypothesize that the cortical activity during the original task to be later adapted is a more reliable and stronger determinant of motor adaptation. Consequently, we present a study to find cortical areas whose activity, both at rest and during first-person virtual reality simulation of bicycle riding, characterizes the subjects who did and did not adapt to ride a reverse steering bicycle, a complex motor adaptation task involving all limbs and balance. The results showed that cortical activity differences during the simulated task were higher, more significant, spatially larger, and spectrally wider than at rest for good performers. In this sense, the activity of the left anterior insula, left dorsolateral and ventrolateral inferior prefrontal areas, and left inferior premotor cortex (action understanding hub of the mirror neuron circuit) during simulated bicycle riding are the areas with the most descriptive power for the ability of adapting the motor task. Trials registration Trial was registered with the NIH Clinical Trials Registry (clinicaltrials.gov), with the registration number NCT02999516 (21/12/2016).

Attention, working-memory control, working-memory capacity, and sport performance: The moderating role of athletic expertise

The aim of this research was to detangle the association between attention, working-memory (focusing on both control and capacity functions), and sport performance across athletic expertise. Specifically, the mediating effect of working-memory-control and working-memory-capacity on the attention and performance relationship will be investigated, and whether this effect differs across athlete expertise. A sample of 359 athletes (M_age = 18.91 ± SD = 1.01; 54.87% male) with a range of athletic expertise (novice n = 99, amateur n = 92, elite n = 87, and super-elite n = 81) completed a battery of neurocognitive tasks assessing attention, working-memory-control, working-memory-capacity, and a cognitively engaging motor task (e.g. basketball free-throw task). Athletes with more expertise performed better on tasks of attention, working-memory-control and working-memory-capacity. Results of structural equation modelling indicated a positive association between the cognitive measures and sport performance. Specifically, working-memory-control and working-memory-capacity mediated the attention and sport performance relationship. Additionally, invariance testing indicated larger effects for those with more athletic expertise. These findings provide a better understanding of how attention and the control and capacity functions of working-memory interact to predict performance. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.