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Comparative proteomic analysis of kinesin-8B deficient Plasmodium berghei during gametogenesis. J Proteomics 2021; 236:104118. [PMID: 33486016 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2021.104118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Revised: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium blood stages, responsible for human to vector transmission, termed gametocytes, are the precursor cells that develop into gametes in the mosquito. Male gametogenesis works as a bottleneck for the parasite life cycle, where, during a peculiar and rapid exflagellation, a male gametocyte produces 8 intracellular axonemes that generate by budding 8 motile gametes. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of gametogenesis is key to design strategies for controlling malaria transmission. In the rodent P. berghei, the microtubule-based motor kinesin-8B (PbKIN8B) is essential for flagellum assembly during male gametogenesis and its gene disruption impacts on completion of the parasitic life cycle. In efforts to improve our knowledge about male gametogenesis, we performed an iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomic comparison of P. berghei mutants with disrupted kinesin-8B gene (ΔPbkin8B) and wild type parasites. During the 15 min of gametogenesis, ΔPbkin8B parasites exhibited important motor protein dysregulation that suggests an essential role of PbKIN8B for the correct interaction or integration of axonemal proteins within the growing axoneme. The energy metabolism of ΔPbkin8B mutants was further affected, as well as the response to stress proteins, protein synthesis, as well as chromatin organisation and DNA processes, although endomitoses seemed to occur. SIGNIFICANCE: Malaria continues to be a global scourge, mainly in subtropical and tropical areas. The disease is caused by parasites from the Plasmodium genus. Plasmodium life cycle alternates between female Anopheles mosquitoes and vertebrate hosts through bites. Gametocytes are the parasite blood forms responsible for transmission from vertebrates to vectors. Inside the mosquito midgut, after stimulation, male and female gametocytes transform into gametes resulting in fertilization. During male gametogenesis, one gametocyte generates eight intracytoplasmic axonemes that generate, by budding, flagellated motile gametes involving a process termed exflagellation. Sexual development has a central role in ensuring malaria transmission. However, molecular data on male gametogenesis and particularly on intracytoplasmic axoneme assembly are still lacking. Since rodent malaria parasites permit the combination of in vivo and in vitro experiments and reverse genetic studies, our group investigated the molecular events in rodent P. berghei gametogenesis. The P. berghei motor ATPase kinesin-8B is proposed as an important component for male gametogenesis. We generated Pbkin8B gene-disrupted gametocytes (ΔPbkin8B) that were morphologically similar to the wild- type (WT) parasites. However, in mutants, male gametogenesis is impaired, male gametocytes are disabled in their ability to assemble axonemes and to exflagellate to release gametes, reducing fertilization drastically. Using a comparative quantitative proteomic analysis, we associated the nonfunctional axoneme of the mutants with the abnormal differential expression of proteins essential to axoneme organisation and stability. We also observed a differential dysregulation of proteins involved in protein biosynthesis and degradation, chromatin organisation and DNA processes in ΔPbkin8B parasites, although DNA condensation, mitotic spindle formation and endomitoses seem to occur. This is the first functional proteomic study of a kinesin gene-disrupted Plasmodium parasite providing new insights into Plasmodium male gametogenesis.
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Lin Y, Wei YL, She ZY. Kinesin-8 motors: regulation of microtubule dynamics and chromosome movements. Chromosoma 2020; 129:99-110. [PMID: 32417983 DOI: 10.1007/s00412-020-00736-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Microtubules are essential for intracellular transport, cell motility, spindle assembly, and chromosome segregation during cell division. Microtubule dynamics regulate the proper spindle organization and thus contribute to chromosome congression and segregation. Accumulating studies suggest that kinesin-8 motors are emerging regulators of microtubule dynamics and organizations. In this review, we provide an overview of the studies focused on kinesin-8 motors in cell division. We discuss the structures and molecular kinetics of kinesin-8 motors. We highlight the essential roles and mechanisms of kinesin-8 in the regulation of microtubule dynamics and spindle organization. We also shed light on the functions of kinesin-8 motors in chromosome movement and the spindle assembly checkpoint during the cell cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Lin
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, The School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, 350122, Fujian, China.,Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Fujian Province University, Fuzhou, 350122, Fujian, China
| | - Ya-Lan Wei
- Fujian Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Fuzhou, 350011, Fujian, China.,Medical Research Center, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, 350001, Fujian, China
| | - Zhen-Yu She
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, The School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, 350122, Fujian, China. .,Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Fujian Province University, Fuzhou, 350122, Fujian, China.
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Renda F, Pellacani C, Strunov A, Bucciarelli E, Naim V, Bosso G, Kiseleva E, Bonaccorsi S, Sharp DJ, Khodjakov A, Gatti M, Somma MP. The Drosophila orthologue of the INT6 onco-protein regulates mitotic microtubule growth and kinetochore structure. PLoS Genet 2017; 13:e1006784. [PMID: 28505193 PMCID: PMC5448806 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Revised: 05/30/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
INT6/eIF3e is a highly conserved component of the translation initiation complex that interacts with both the 26S proteasome and the COP9 signalosome, two complexes implicated in ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation. The INT6 gene was originally identified as the insertion site of the mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV), and later shown to be involved in human tumorigenesis. Here we show that depletion of the Drosophila orthologue of INT6 (Int6) results in short mitotic spindles and deformed centromeres and kinetochores with low intra-kinetochore distance. Poleward flux of microtubule subunits during metaphase is reduced, although fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) demonstrates that microtubules remain dynamic both near the kinetochores and at spindle poles. Mitotic progression is delayed during metaphase due to the activity of the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC). Interestingly, a deubiquitinated form of the kinesin Klp67A (a putative orthologue of human Kif18A) accumulates near the kinetochores in Int6-depleted cells. Consistent with this finding, Klp67A overexpression mimics the Int6 RNAi phenotype. Furthermore, simultaneous depletion of Int6 and Klp67A results in a phenotype identical to RNAi of just Klp67A, which indicates that Klp67A deficiency is epistatic over Int6 deficiency. We propose that Int6-mediated ubiquitination is required to control the activity of Klp67A. In the absence of this control, excess of Klp67A at the kinetochore suppresses microtubule plus-end polymerization, which in turn results in reduced microtubule flux, spindle shortening, and centromere/kinetochore deformation. INT6 is an evolutionarily conserved gene originally identified as the insertion site of the mouse mammary tumor virus that causes tumors in mice. INT6 is downregulated in many human cancers, suggesting that it acts as tumor suppressor gene. The INT6 protein is involved in several biological processes, including translation and ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation. We performed RNA interference (RNAi) against the Drosophila homologue of INT6 (Int6) and analyzed the effects of Int6 depletion on mitotic cell division. We found that loss of Int6 results in short spindles, delayed progression though metaphase and abnormally shaped centromeres/kinetochores. We also found that Int6-depleted cells fail to degrade the kinesin Klp67A. This protein, known to attenuate polymerization of microtubule (MTs) plus ends, accumulated at the kinetochores in Int6-depleted cells. We propose that this condition affects MT growth at the kinetochore, which in turn results in centromere/kinetochore deformation and delays satisfaction of the mitotic checkpoint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fioranna Renda
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie “C. Darwin”, Sapienza, Università di Roma, Roma, Italy
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, United States of America
| | - Claudia Pellacani
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie “C. Darwin”, Sapienza, Università di Roma, Roma, Italy
- Istituto di Biologia e Patologia Molecolari (IBPM) del CNR, Roma, Italy
| | - Anton Strunov
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Siberian Branch of RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | | | - Valeria Naim
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie “C. Darwin”, Sapienza, Università di Roma, Roma, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Bosso
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie “C. Darwin”, Sapienza, Università di Roma, Roma, Italy
| | - Elena Kiseleva
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Siberian Branch of RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Silvia Bonaccorsi
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie “C. Darwin”, Sapienza, Università di Roma, Roma, Italy
| | - David J. Sharp
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Alexey Khodjakov
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, United States of America
| | - Maurizio Gatti
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie “C. Darwin”, Sapienza, Università di Roma, Roma, Italy
- Istituto di Biologia e Patologia Molecolari (IBPM) del CNR, Roma, Italy
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Siberian Branch of RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia
- * E-mail: (MPS); (MG)
| | - Maria Patrizia Somma
- Istituto di Biologia e Patologia Molecolari (IBPM) del CNR, Roma, Italy
- * E-mail: (MPS); (MG)
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Abstract
When chromosome are being separated in preparation for cell division, their motions are slow (~16 nm/s) relative to the speed at which many motor enzymes can move their cellular cargoes (160-1000 nm/s and sometimes even faster) and at which microtubules (MTs) depolymerize (~200 nm/s). Indeed, anaphase chromosome speeds are so slow that viscous drag puts little load on the mechanisms that generate the relevant forces [35]. Available evidence suggests that chromosome speed is due to some form of regulation. For example, big and little chromosomes move at about the same speed, chromosomes that have farther to go move faster than others, and chromosome speed is affected by both temperature and an experimentally applied load. In this essay we review data on these phenomena and present our ideas about likely properties of the mechanisms that regulate chromosome speed.
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Targeted deletion of Kif18a protects from colitis-associated colorectal (CAC) tumors in mice through impairing Akt phosphorylation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2013; 438:97-102. [PMID: 23872115 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.07.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Accepted: 07/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Kinesins are a superfamily of molecular motors involved in cell division or intracellular transport. They are becoming important targets for chemotherapeutic intervention of cancer due to their crucial role in mitosis. Here, we demonstrate that the kinesin-8 Kif18a is overexpressed in murine CAC and is a crucial promoter during early CAC carcinogenesis. Kif18a-deficient mice are evidently protected from AOM-DSS-induced colon carcinogenesis. Kif18A is responsible for proliferation of colonic tumor cells, while Kif18a ablation in mice promotes cell apoptosis. Mechanistically, Kif18a is responsible for induction of Akt phosphorylation, which is known to be associated with cell survival regulation. In conclusion, Kif18a is critical for colorectal carcinogenesis in the setting of inflammation by mechanisms of increased PI3K-AKT signaling. Inhibition of Kif18A activity may be useful in the prevention or chemotherapeutic intervention of CAC.
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Liu XS, Zhao XD, Wang X, Yao YX, Zhang LL, Shu RZ, Ren WH, Huang Y, Huang L, Gu MM, Kuang Y, Wang L, Lu SY, Chi J, Fen JS, Wang YF, Fei J, Dai W, Wang ZG. Germinal Cell Aplasia in Kif18a Mutant Male Mice Due to Impaired Chromosome Congression and Dysregulated BubR1 and CENP-E. Genes Cancer 2011; 1:26-39. [PMID: 20981276 DOI: 10.1177/1947601909358184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Chromosomal instability during cell division frequently causes cell death or malignant transformation. Orderly chromosome congression at the metaphase plate, a paramount process to vertebrate mitosis and meiosis, is controlled by a number of molecular regulators, including kinesins. Kinesin-8 (Kif18A) functions to control mitotic chromosome alignment at the mid-zone by negative regulation of kinetochore oscillation. Here the authors report that disrupting Kif18a function results in complete sterility in male but not in female mice. Histological examination reveals that Kif18a(-/-) testes exhibit severe developmental impairment of seminiferous tubules. Testis atrophy in Kif18a(-/-) mice is caused by perturbation of microtubule dynamics and spindle pole integrity, leading to chromosome congression defects during mitosis and meiosis. Depletion of KIF18A via RNAi causes mitotic arrest accompanied by unaligned chromosomes and increased microtubule nucleating centers in both GC-1 and HeLa cells. Prolonged depletion of KIF18A causes apoptosis due to perturbed microtubule dynamics. Further studies reveal that KIF18A silencing results in degradation of CENP-E and BubR1, which is accompanied by premature sister chromatid separation. KIF18A physically interacts with BubR1 and CENP-E, and this interaction is modulated during mitosis. Combined, the studies indicate that KIF18A is essential for normal chromosome congression during cell division and that the absence of KIF18A function causes severe defects in microtubule dynamics, spindle integrity, and checkpoint activation, leading to germinal cell aplasia in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Song Liu
- Department of Medical Genetics, E-Institutes of Shanghai Universities, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine (SJTUSM), Shanghai, China
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Wang H, Brust-Mascher I, Cheerambathur D, Scholey JM. Coupling between microtubule sliding, plus-end growth and spindle length revealed by kinesin-8 depletion. Cytoskeleton (Hoboken) 2011; 67:715-28. [PMID: 20814910 DOI: 10.1002/cm.20482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Mitotic spindle length control requires coordination between microtubule (MT) dynamics and motor-generated forces. To investigate how MT plus-end polymerization contributes to spindle length in Drosophila embryos, we studied the dynamics of the MT plus-end depolymerase, kinesin-8, and the effects of kinesin-8 inhibition using mutants and antibody microinjection. As expected, kinesin-8 was found to contribute to anaphase A. Furthermore, kinesin-8 depletion caused: (i) excessive polymerization of interpolar (ip) MT plus ends, which "overgrow" to penetrate distal half spindles; (ii) an increase in the poleward ipMT sliding rate that is coupled to MT plus-end polymerization; (iii) premature spindle elongation during metaphase/anaphase A; and (iv) an increase in the anaphase B spindle elongation rate which correlates linearly with the MT sliding rate. This is best explained by a revised "ipMT sliding/minus-end depolymerization" model for spindle length control which incorporates a coupling between ipMT plus end dynamics and the outward ipMT sliding that drives poleward flux and spindle elongation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haifeng Wang
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, One Shields Avenue, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616, USA
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Zhang C, Zhu C, Chen H, Li L, Guo L, Jiang W, Lu SH. Kif18A is involved in human breast carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis 2010; 31:1676-84. [PMID: 20595236 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgq134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Microtubule (MT) kinesin motor proteins orchestrate various cellular processes (e.g. mitosis, motility and organelle transportation) and have been implicated in human carcinogenesis. Kif18A, a plus-end directed MT depolymerase kinesin, regulates MT dynamics, chromosome congression and cell division. In this study, we report that Kif18A is overexpressed in human breast cancers and Kif18A overexpression is associated with tumor grade, metastasis and poor survival. Functional analyses reveal that ectopic overexpression of Kif18A results in cell multinucleation, whereas ablation of Kif18A expression significantly inhibits the proliferative capability of breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Inhibition of Kif18A not only affects the critical mitotic function of Kif18A but also decreases cancer cell migration by stabilizing MTs at leading edges and ultimately induces anoikis of cells with inactivation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-Akt signaling pathway. Together, our results indicate that Kif18A is involved in human breast carcinogenesis and may serve as a potential therapeutic target for human breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunpeng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Department of Etiology and Carcinogenesis, Cancer Institute and Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100021, China
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Huang Y, Yao Y, Xu HZ, Wang ZG, Lu L, Dai W. Defects in chromosome congression and mitotic progression in KIF18A-deficient cells are partly mediated through impaired functions of CENP-E. Cell Cycle 2009; 8:2643-9. [PMID: 19625775 DOI: 10.4161/cc.8.16.9366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
KIF18A, a molecular motor, is an essential component in the regulation of orderly chromosome congression by attenuation of the kinetochore oscillation amplitude at the midzone during mitosis in vertebrate cells. Here we report that KIF18A depletion resulted in mitotic arrest which was accompanied by the presence of unaligned chromosomes in HeLa cells. This resembles the phenotype induced by an impaired function of CENP-E, also a mitotic kinesin essential for the formation of the mitotic spindles. Our further analysis showed that KIF18A depletion caused specific downregulation of CENP-E. Downregulation of CENP-E as the result of KIF18A silencing was not due to reduced transcription but primarily due to the enhanced protein degradation. Co-immunoprecipitation revealed that KIF18A physically interacted with CENP-E and BubR1 during mitosis. Ectopic expression of the wild-type tail domain of CENP-E, but not a corresponding mutant, significantly suppressed chromosome congression defects in mitotic cells. Together, our studies strongly suggest that chromosome congression defects as the result of KIF18A depletion is at least in part mediated through destabilizing kinetochore CENP-E.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Huang
- Department of Environmental Medicine and Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, Tuxedo, NY, USA
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Zusev M, Benayahu D. New insights on cellular distribution, microtubule interactions and post-translational modifications of MS-KIF18A. J Cell Physiol 2008; 217:618-25. [PMID: 18680169 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.21525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The present study highlights on the biochemical and immunological analysis of MS-KIF18A in pre-osteogenic MBA-15 cells. The protein distribution in various cellular compartments was demonstrated by imaging and Western blot (WB) analysis. MS-KIF18A interactions with cytoskeletal proteins were confirmed for tubulin and actin. The complex between MS-KIF18A and microtubules (MT) was demonstrated in cellular system for endogenous proteins and also between recombinant proteins in pull down and immunoprecipitation (IP) assays. Multiple assays including metabolic labeling, cell fractionation and IP with anti-MS-KIF18A antibody demonstrated an association with actin that was prominent in the cell cytoplasm. Sub-cellular fractionation identified diverse forms of MS-KIF18A in cytoplasm and membrane/nucleus compartments which are suggested to represent the result of post-transcriptional modifications, such as phosphorylation and glycosylation. These modifications on MS-KIF18A were analyzed by bioinformatics and immunological assays. Furthermore, we studied the role of ubiquitin-proteasome system in the MS-KIF18A degradation. Taken together, the current study sheds light on MS-KIF18A a MT-dependent kinesin and adds insights on the post-translational modifications that potentially control the protein cellular distribution and its co-association with cytoskeletal proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margalit Zusev
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
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Nag DK, Tikhonenko I, Soga I, Koonce MP. Disruption of four kinesin genes in dictyostelium. BMC Cell Biol 2008; 9:21. [PMID: 18430243 PMCID: PMC2396615 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2121-9-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2008] [Accepted: 04/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Kinesin and dynein are the two families of microtubule-based motors that drive much of the intracellular movements in eukaryotic cells. Using a gene knockout strategy, we address here the individual function(s) of four of the 13 kinesin proteins in Dictyostelium. The goal of our ongoing project is to establish a minimal motility proteome for this basal eukaryote, enabling us to contrast motor functions here with the often far more elaborate motor families in the metazoans. RESULTS We performed individual disruptions of the kinesin genes, kif4, kif8, kif10, and kif11. None of the motors encoded by these genes are essential for development or viability of Dictyostelium. Removal of Kif4 (kinesin-7; CENP-E family) significantly impairs the rate of cell growth and, when combined with a previously characterized dynein inhibition, results in dramatic defects in mitotic spindle assembly. Kif8 (kinesin-4; chromokinesin family) and Kif10 (kinesin-8; Kip3 family) appear to cooperate with dynein to organize the interphase radial microtubule array. CONCLUSION The results reported here extend the number of kinesin gene disruptions in Dictyostelium, to now total 10, among the 13 isoforms. None of these motors, individually, are required for short-term viability. In contrast, homologs of at least six of the 10 kinesins are considered essential in humans. Our work underscores the functional redundancy of motor isoforms in basal organisms while highlighting motor specificity in more complex metazoans. Since motor disruption in Dictyostelium can readily be combined with other motility insults and stresses, this organism offers an excellent system to investigate functional interactions among the kinesin motor family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dilip K Nag
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Wadsworth Center, Albany, NY, 12201-0509, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Public Health, University at Albany, Albany, NY, 12201-0509, USA
| | - Irina Tikhonenko
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Wadsworth Center, Albany, NY, 12201-0509, USA
| | - Ikko Soga
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Public Health, University at Albany, Albany, NY, 12201-0509, USA
| | - Michael P Koonce
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Wadsworth Center, Albany, NY, 12201-0509, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Public Health, University at Albany, Albany, NY, 12201-0509, USA
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