ER-PM Contacts Define Actomyosin Kinetics for Proper Contractile Ring Assembly

The ER-PM interaction is essential for cytokinesis and recruits the actin cytoskeleton through the SCAR/WAVE complex

Plant cytokinesis requires coordination between the actin cytoskeleton, microtubules, and membranes to guide division plane formation and cell plate expansion; how these regulatory factors are coordinated remains unknown. The actin cytoskeleton assembly is controlled by several actin nucleation factors, such as the SCAR/WAVE complex, which regulates actin nucleation and branching through the activation of the ARP2/3 complex. The activity of these actin regulatory proteins is likely influenced by interactions with specific membranes; however, the molecular basis and the biological relevance of SCAR-membrane interactions are also unclear. In this study, we demonstrate that the ER-PM tethering protein VAP27-1 directly interacts with SCAR2 at the ER membrane and that they colocalize to guide cell plate orientation during cell division. In the root meristem, both VAP27-1 and SCAR2 exhibit polarized localization at the cell plates, where the interaction between ER and PM is abundant. VAP27-1 recruits SCAR2 to the cell division plane, where there is a high concentration of actin filaments. In the vap27-1346 mutant, the densities of cortical ER, SCAR2, and consequently actin filaments are significantly reduced at the cell division plane, affecting cell plate orientation, cell division, and root development. A similar phenomenon is also observed in the scar1234 mutant, suggesting that VAP27 and SCAR proteins regulate cell division through a similar pathway. In conclusion, our data reveal a plant-specific function of VAP27-regulated ER-PM interaction and advance our understanding of plant ER-PM contact site and its role in cell division.

VAP-mediated membrane-tethering mechanisms implicate ER-PM contact function in pH homeostasis

Vesicle-associated membrane protein (VAMP)-associated proteins (VAPs) are highly conserved endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident proteins that establish ER contacts with multiple membrane compartments in many eukaryotes. However, VAP-mediated membrane-tethering mechanisms remain ambiguous. Here, focusing on fission yeast ER-plasma membrane (PM) contact formation, using systematic interactome analyses and quantitative microscopy, we predict a non-VAP-protein direct binding-based ER-PM coupling. We further reveal that VAP-anionic phospholipid interactions may underlie ER-PM association and define the pH-responsive nature of VAP-tethered membrane contacts. Such conserved interactions with anionic phospholipids are generally defective in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-associated human VAPB mutant. Moreover, we identify a conserved FFAT-like motif locating at the autoinhibitory hotspot of the essential PM proton pump Pma1. This modulatory VAP-Pma1 interaction appears crucial for pH homeostasis. We thus propose an ingenious strategy for maintaining intracellular pH by coupling Pma1 modulation with pH-sensory ER-PM contacts via VAP-mediated interactions.

Stay in touch with the endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which is composed of a continuous network of tubules and sheets, forms the most widely distributed membrane system in eukaryotic cells. As a result, it engages a variety of organelles by establishing membrane contact sites (MCSs). These contacts regulate organelle positioning and remodeling, including fusion and fission, facilitate precise lipid exchange, and couple vital signaling events. Here, we systematically review recent advances and converging themes on ER-involved organellar contact. The molecular basis, cellular influence, and potential physiological functions for ER/nuclear envelope contacts with mitochondria, Golgi, endosomes, lysosomes, lipid droplets, autophagosomes, and plasma membrane are summarized.

Anillin-related Mid1 as an adaptive and multimodal contractile ring anchoring protein: A simulation study

Cytokinesis of animal and fungi cells depends crucially on the anillin scaffold proteins. Fission yeast anillin-related Mid1 anchors cytokinetic ring precursor nodes to the membrane. However, it is unclear if both of its Pleckstrin Homology (PH) and C2 C-terminal domains bind to the membrane as monomers or dimers, and if one domain plays a dominant role. We studied Mid1 membrane binding with all-atom molecular dynamics near a membrane with yeast-like lipid composition. In simulations with the full C terminal region started away from the membrane, Mid1 binds through the disordered L3 loop of C2 in a vertical orientation, with the PH away from the membrane. However, a configuration with both C2 and PH initially bound to the membrane remains associated with the membrane. Simulations of C2-PH dimers show extensive asymmetric membrane contacts. These multiple modes of binding may reflect Mid1's multiple interactions with membranes, node proteins, and ability to sustain mechanical forces.

Anillin Related Mid1 as an Adaptive and Multimodal Contractile Ring Anchoring Protein: A Simulation Study

The organization of the cytokinetic ring at the cell equator of dividing animal and fungi cells depends crucially on the anillin scaffold proteins. In fission yeast, anillin related Mid1 binds to the plasma membrane and helps anchor and organize a medial broad band of cytokinetic nodes, which are the precursors of the contractile ring. Similar to other anillins, Mid1 contains a C terminal globular domain with two potential regions for membrane binding, the Pleckstrin Homology (PH) and C2 domains, and an N terminal intrinsically disordered region that is strongly regulated by phosphorylation. Previous studies have shown that both PH and C2 domains can associate with the membrane, preferring phosphatidylinositol-(4,5)-bisphosphate (PIP 2 ) lipids. However, it is unclear if they can simultaneously bind to the membrane in a way that allows dimerization or oligomerization of Mid1, and if one domain plays a dominant role. To elucidate Mid1's membrane binding mechanism, we used the available structural information of the C terminal region of Mid1 in all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) near a membrane with a lipid composition based on experimental measurements (including PIP 2 lipids). The disordered L3 loop of C2, as well as the PH domain, separately bind the membrane through charged lipid contacts. In simulations with the full C terminal region started away from the membrane, Mid1 binds through the L3 loop and is stabilized in a vertical orientation with the PH domain away from the membrane. However, a configuration with both C2 and PH initially bound to the membrane remains associated with the membrane. These multiple modes of binding may reflect Mid1's multiple interactions with membranes and other node proteins, and ability to sustain mechanical forces.

The number of cytokinesis nodes in mitotic fission yeast scales with cell size

Cytokinesis nodes are assemblies of stoichiometric ratios of proteins associated with the plasma membrane, which serve as precursors for the contractile ring during cytokinesis by fission yeast. The total number of nodes is uncertain, because of the limitations of the methods used previously. Here, we used the ~140 nm resolution of Airyscan super-resolution microscopy to measure the fluorescence intensity of small, single cytokinesis nodes marked with Blt1-mEGFP in live fission yeast cells early in mitosis. The ratio of the total Blt1-mEGFP fluorescence in the broad band of cytokinesis nodes to the average fluorescence of a single node gives about 190 single cytokinesis nodes in wild-type fission yeast cells early in mitosis. Most, but not all of these nodes condense into a contractile ring. The number of cytokinesis nodes scales with cell size in four strains tested, although large diameter rga4Δ mutant cells form somewhat fewer cytokinesis nodes than expected from the overall trend. The Pom1 kinase restricts cytokinesis nodes from the ends of cells, but the surface density of Pom1 on the plasma membrane around the equators of cells is similar with a wide range of node numbers, so Pom1 does not control cytokinesis node number. However, when the concentrations of either kinase Pom1 or kinase Cdr2 were varied with the nmt1 promoter, the numbers of cytokinesis nodes increased above a baseline of about ~190 with the total cellular concentration of either kinase.

Geometry and cellular function of organelle membrane interfaces

A vast majority of cellular processes take root at the surface of biological membranes. By providing a two-dimensional platform with limited diffusion, membranes are, by nature, perfect devices to concentrate signaling and metabolic components. As such, membranes often act as "key processors" of cellular information. Biological membranes are highly dynamic and deformable and can be shaped into curved, tubular, or flat conformations, resulting in differentiated biophysical properties. At membrane contact sites, membranes from adjacent organelles come together into a unique 3D configuration, forming functionally distinct microdomains, which facilitate spatially regulated functions, such as organelle communication. Here, we describe the diversity of geometries of contact site-forming membranes in different eukaryotic organisms and explore the emerging notion that their shape, 3D architecture, and remodeling jointly define their cellular activity. The review also provides selected examples highlighting changes in membrane contact site architecture acting as rapid and local responses to cellular perturbations, and summarizes our current understanding of how those structural changes confer functional specificity to those cellular territories.

Plasma Membrane Furrows Control Plasticity of ER-PM Contacts

The plasma membrane (PM) forms extensive close junctions with the cortical endoplasmic reticulum (cER) in many cell types, ranging from yeast to mammals. How cells modulate structural plasticity of ER-PM contacts to accommodate space-demanding cortical events is largely unknown. Here, we report a role for eisosome-driven PM furrows in regulating ER-PM contact plasticity in fission yeast. We demonstrate that eisosome-coated PM invaginations function to stabilize local ER-PM contacts and attenuate cER remodeling dynamics through electrostatic Scs2-Pil1 interactions. We also identify divergent roles of ER-shaping proteins in controlling cER remodeling capacity and ER-PM contact plasticity. Furthermore, we show that eisosome organization is responsive to PM tension variations during active PM remodeling, which may enable adaptive control of ER-PM contact plasticity to potentially coordinate with space-demanding PM events. We thus propose a cellular strategy of modulating membrane contact plasticity by deploying sensory elements at contact sites.

Interplay between endoplasmic reticulum membrane contacts and actomyosin cytoskeleton

Eukaryotic membrane-bound organelles, exhibiting distinctive morphologies, dynamics and functions, are interconnected at membrane contact sites (MCSs) through numerous tethering machineries. MCSs are required for many fundamental cellular processes, such as non-vesicular lipid transfer, calcium transport and organelle homeostasis. Actin cytoskeleton and myosin motors are known to dynamically interact with different membrane boundaries, facilitating organelle movements and partitioning. Intriguingly, recent studies have pinpointed a special participation of actomyosin at various MCSs involving the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the most extensive membranous organelle in the cell. Here, I summarize emerging roles of ER MCSs in modulating actomyosin structures and discuss feedback functions of such actomyosin regulation at these MCSs.

Lem2 and Lnp1 maintain the membrane boundary between the nuclear envelope and endoplasmic reticulum

The nuclear envelope (NE) continues to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Proper partitioning of NE and ER is crucial for cellular activity, but the key factors maintaining the boundary between NE and ER remain to be elucidated. Here we show that the conserved membrane proteins Lem2 and Lnp1 cooperatively play a crucial role in maintaining the NE-ER membrane boundary in fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Cells lacking both Lem2 and Lnp1 caused severe growth defects associated with aberrant expansion of the NE/ER membranes, abnormal leakage of nuclear proteins, and abnormal formation of vacuolar-like structures in the nucleus. Overexpression of the ER membrane protein Apq12 rescued the growth defect associated with membrane disorder caused by the loss of Lem2 and Lnp1. Genetic analysis showed that Apq12 had overlapping functions with Lnp1. We propose that a membrane protein network with Lem2 and Lnp1 acts as a critical factor to maintain the NE-ER boundary.

Organization of associating or crosslinked actin filaments in confinement

A key factor of actin cytoskeleton organization in cells is the interplay between the dynamical properties of actin filaments and cell geometry, which restricts, confines and directs their orientation. Crosslinking interactions among actin filaments, together with geometrical cues and regulatory proteins can give rise to contractile rings in dividing cells and actin rings in neurons. Motivated by recent in vitro experiments, in this work we performed computer simulations to study basic aspects of the interplay between confinement and attractive interactions between actin filaments. We used a spring-bead model and Brownian dynamics to simulate semiflexible actin filaments that polymerize in a confining sphere with a rate proportional to the monomer concentration. We model crosslinking, or attraction through the depletion interaction, implicitly as an attractive short-range potential between filament beads. In confining geometries smaller than the persistence length of actin filaments, we show rings can form by curving of filaments of length comparable to, or longer than the confinement diameter. Rings form for optimal ranges of attractive interactions that exist in between open bundles, irregular loops, aggregated, and unbundled morphologies. The probability of ring formation is promoted by attraction to the confining sphere boundary and decreases for large radii and initial monomer concentrations, in agreement with prior experimental data. The model reproduces ring formation along the flat plane of oblate ellipsoids.

Multiscale model of integrin adhesion assembly

The ability of adherent cells to form adhesions is critical to numerous phases of their physiology. The assembly of adhesions is mediated by several types of integrins. These integrins differ in physical properties, including rate of diffusion on the plasma membrane, rapidity of changing conformation from bent to extended, affinity for extracellular matrix ligands, and lifetimes of their ligand-bound states. However, the way in which nanoscale physical properties of integrins ensure proper adhesion assembly remains elusive. We observe experimentally that both β-1 and β-3 integrins localize in nascent adhesions at the cell leading edge. In order to understand how different nanoscale parameters of β-1 and β-3 integrins mediate proper adhesion assembly, we therefore develop a coarse-grained computational model. Results from the model demonstrate that morphology and distribution of nascent adhesions depend on ligand binding affinity and strength of pairwise interactions. Organization of nascent adhesions depends on the relative amounts of integrins with different bond kinetics. Moreover, the model shows that the architecture of an actin filament network does not perturb the total amount of integrin clustering and ligand binding; however, only bundled actin architectures favor adhesion stability and ultimately maturation. Together, our results support the view that cells can finely tune the expression of different integrin types to determine both structural and dynamic properties of adhesions.

Mobility of Molecular Motors Regulates Contractile Behaviors of Actin Networks

Cells generate mechanical forces primarily from interactions between F-actin, cross-linking proteins, myosin motors, and other actin-binding proteins in the cytoskeleton. To understand how molecular interactions between the cytoskeletal elements generate forces, a number of in vitro experiments have been performed but are limited in their ability to accurately reproduce the diversity of motor mobility. In myosin motility assays, myosin heads are fixed on a surface and glide F-actin. By contrast, in reconstituted gels, the motion of both myosin and F-actin is unrestricted. Because only these two extreme conditions have been used, the importance of mobility of motors for network behaviors has remained unclear. In this study, to illuminate the impacts of motor mobility on the contractile behaviors of the actin cytoskeleton, we employed an agent-based computational model based on Brownian dynamics. We find that if motors can bind to only one F-actin like myosin I, networks are most contractile at intermediate mobility. In this case, less motor mobility helps motors stably pull F-actins to generate tensile forces, whereas higher motor mobility allows F-actins to aggregate into larger clustering structures. The optimal intermediate motor mobility depends on the stall force and affinity of motors that are regulated by mechanochemical rates. In addition, we find that the role of motor mobility can vary drastically if motors can bind to a pair of F-actins. A network can exhibit large contraction with high motor mobility because motors bound to antiparallel pairs of F-actins can exert similar forces regardless of their mobility. Results from this study imply that the mobility of molecular motors may critically regulate contractile behaviors of actin networks in cells.

Distinct segregation patterns of yeast cell-peripheral proteins uncovered by a method for protein segregatome analysis

Protein segregation contributes to various cellular processes such as polarization, differentiation, and aging. However, the difficulty in global determination of protein segregation hampers our understanding of its mechanisms and physiological roles. Here, by developing a quantitative proteomics technique, we globally monitored segregation of preexisting and newly synthesized proteins during cell division of budding yeast, and identified crucial domains that determine the segregation of cell-peripheral proteins. Remarkably, the proteomic and subsequent microscopic analyses demonstrated that the flow through the bud neck of the proteins that harbor both endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane-spanning and plasma membrane (PM)-binding domains is not restricted by the previously suggested ER membrane or PM diffusion barriers but by septin-mediated partitioning of the PM-associated ER (pmaER). Furthermore, the proteomic analysis revealed that although the PM-spanning t-SNARE Sso2 was retained in mother cells, its paralog Sso1 unexpectedly showed symmetric localization. We found that the transport of Sso1 to buds was required for enhancement of polarized cell growth and resistance to cell-wall stress. Taken together, these data resolve long-standing questions about septin-mediated compartmentalization of the cell periphery, and provide new mechanistic insights into the segregation of cell-periphery proteins and their cellular functions.

Regulation and Assembly of Actomyosin Contractile Rings in Cytokinesis and Cell Repair

Cytokinesis and single-cell wound repair both involve contractile assemblies of filamentous actin (F-actin) and myosin II organized into characteristic ring-like arrays. The assembly of these actomyosin contractile rings (CRs) is specified spatially and temporally by small Rho GTPases, which trigger local actin polymerization and myosin II contractility via a variety of downstream effectors. We now have a much clearer view of the Rho GTPase signaling cascade that leads to the formation of CRs, but some factors involved in CR positioning, assembly, and function remain poorly understood. Recent studies show that this regulation is multifactorial and goes beyond the long-established Ca²⁺ -dependent processes. There is substantial evidence that the Ca²⁺ -independent changes in cell shape, tension, and plasma membrane composition that characterize cytokinesis and single-cell wound repair also regulate CR formation. Elucidating the regulation and mechanistic properties of CRs is important to our understanding of basic cell biology and holds potential for therapeutic applications in human disease. In this review, we present a primer on the factors influencing and regulating CR positioning, assembly, and contraction as they occur in a variety of cytokinetic and single-cell wound repair models. Anat Rec, 301:2051-2066, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

ER-PM Contacts Restrict Exocytic Sites for Polarized Morphogenesis

Spatial control of exocytosis underlies polarized cell morphogenesis. In rod-shaped fission yeast, exocytic vesicles are conveyed along the actin cytoskeleton by myosin V motors toward growing cell ends [1, 2], the major sites for exocytosis. However, actomyosin-based vesicle delivery is dispensable for polarized secretion and cylindrical cell shape of fission yeast [3]. Thus, additional mechanisms should function in the spatial confinement of exocytosis. Here we report a novel role of endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-plasma membrane (PM) contacts in restricting exocytic sites for polarized fission yeast morphogenesis. We show that fission yeast cells deficient in both ER-PM contacts and actomyosin-based secretory vesicle transport display aberrant globular cell shape due to delocalized exocytosis. By artificially manipulating the strength and extent of ER-PM contacts in wild-type and mutant cells that exhibit induced ectopic exocytosis, we demonstrate that exocytosis and ER-PM contact formation are spatially incompatible. Furthermore, extensive ER-PM junctions at the non-growing lateral cell cortex prevent the PM from exocytic vesicle tethering and hence attenuate growth potential at cell sides. We thus propose that ER-PM contacts function as a new morphogenetic module by limiting exocytosis to growing cell tips in fission yeast. A similar mechanism could apply to other cell types with prominent ER-PM contacts.

Cortical actin contributes to spatial organization of ER-PM junctions

Endoplasmic reticulum-plasma membrane (ER-PM) junctions mediate crucial activities ranging from Ca2+ signaling to lipid metabolism. Spatial organization of ER-PM junctions may modulate the extent and location of these cellular activities. However, the morphology and distribution of ER-PM junctions are not well characterized. Using photoactivated localization microscopy, we reveal that the contact area of single ER-PM junctions is mainly oblong with the dimensions of ∼120 nm × ∼80 nm in HeLa cells. Using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy and structure illumination microscopy, we show that cortical actin contributes to spatial distribution and stability of ER-PM junctions. Further functional assays suggest that intact F-actin architecture is required for phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate homeostasis mediated by Nir2 at ER-PM junctions. Together, our study provides quantitative information on spatial organization of ER-PM junctions that is in part regulated by F-actin. We envision that functions of ER-PM junctions can be differentially regulated through dynamic actin remodeling during cellular processes.

Plant Endoplasmic Reticulum-Plasma Membrane Contact Sites

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) acts as a superhighway with multiple sideroads that connects the different membrane compartments including the ER to the plasma membrane (PM). ER-PM contact sites (EPCSs) are a common feature in eukaryotic organisms, but have not been studied well in plants owing to the lack of molecular markers and to the difficulty in resolving the EPCS structure using conventional microscopy. Recently, however, plant protein complexes required for linking the ER and PM have been identified. This is a further step towards understanding the structure and function of plant EPCSs. We highlight some recent studies in this field and suggest several hypotheses that relate to the possible function of EPCSs in plants.