1
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Targeting protein phosphatases in cancer immunotherapy and autoimmune disorders. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2023; 22:273-294. [PMID: 36693907 PMCID: PMC9872771 DOI: 10.1038/s41573-022-00618-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Protein phosphatases act as key regulators of multiple important cellular processes and are attractive therapeutic targets for various diseases. Although extensive effort has been dedicated to phosphatase-targeted drug discovery, early expeditions for competitive phosphatase inhibitors were plagued by druggability issues, leading to the stigmatization of phosphatases as difficult targets. Despite challenges, persistent efforts have led to the identification of several drug-like, non-competitive modulators of some of these enzymes - including SH2 domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase 2, protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B, vascular endothelial protein tyrosine phosphatase and protein phosphatase 1 - reigniting interest in therapeutic targeting of phosphatases. Here, we discuss recent progress in phosphatase drug discovery, with emphasis on the development of selective modulators that exhibit biological activity. The roles and regulation of protein phosphatases in immune cells and their potential as powerful targets for immuno-oncology and autoimmunity indications are assessed.
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2
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Mo H, Wang L, Chen Y, Zhang X, Huang N, Liu T, Hu W, Zhong Y, Li Q. Age-related memory vulnerability to interfering stimuli is caused by gradual loss of MAPK-dependent protection in Drosophila. Aging Cell 2022; 21:e13628. [PMID: 35570367 PMCID: PMC9197400 DOI: 10.1111/acel.13628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Age‐related memory impairment (AMI) is a common phenomenon across species. Vulnerability to interfering stimuli has been proposed to be an important cause of AMI. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this vulnerability‐related AMI remain unknown. Here we show that learning‐activated MAPK signals are gradually lost with age, leading to vulnerability‐related AMI in Drosophila. Young flies (2‐ or 3‐day‐old) exhibited a significant increase in phosphorylated MAPK levels within 15 min after learning, whereas aged flies (25‐day‐old) did not. Compared to 3‐day‐old flies, significant 1 h memory impairments were observed in 15‐, 20‐, and 30‐day‐old flies, but not in 10‐day‐old flies. However, with post‐learning interfering stimuli such as cooling or electric stimuli, 10‐day‐old flies had worse memory performance at 1 h than 3‐day‐old flies, showing a premature AMI phenomenon. Increasing learning‐activated MAPK signals through acute transgene expression in mushroom body (MB) neurons restored physiological trace of 1 h memory in a pair of MB output neurons in aged flies. Decreasing such signals in young flies mimicked the impairment of 1 h memory trace in aged flies. Restoring learning‐activated MAPK signals in MB neurons in aged flies significantly suppressed AMI even with interfering stimuli. Thus, our data suggest that age‐related loss of learning‐activated neuronal MAPK signals causes memory vulnerability to interfering stimuli, thereby leading to AMI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Mo
- School of Life Sciences IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research Tsinghua University Beijing China
- Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences Beijing China
| | - Linghan Wang
- School of Life Sciences IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research Tsinghua University Beijing China
- Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences Beijing China
| | - Yuting Chen
- School of Life Sciences IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research Tsinghua University Beijing China
- Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences Beijing China
| | - Xuchen Zhang
- School of Life Sciences IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research Tsinghua University Beijing China
- Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences Beijing China
| | - Ning Huang
- School of Life Sciences IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research Tsinghua University Beijing China
- Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences Beijing China
| | - Tingting Liu
- School of Life Sciences IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research Tsinghua University Beijing China
- Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences Beijing China
| | - Wantong Hu
- School of Life Sciences IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research Tsinghua University Beijing China
- Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences Beijing China
| | - Yi Zhong
- School of Life Sciences IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research Tsinghua University Beijing China
- Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences Beijing China
| | - Qian Li
- School of Life Sciences IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research Tsinghua University Beijing China
- Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences Beijing China
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3
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Carvajal FJ, Cerpa W. Regulation of Phosphorylated State of NMDA Receptor by STEP 61 Phosphatase after Mild-Traumatic Brain Injury: Role of Oxidative Stress. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10101575. [PMID: 34679709 PMCID: PMC8533270 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10101575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) mediates neuronal death through several events involving many molecular pathways, including the glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity for excessive stimulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs), producing activation of death signaling pathways. However, the contribution of NMDARs (distribution and signaling-associated to the distribution) remains incompletely understood. We propose a critical role of STEP61 (Striatal-Enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase) in TBI; this phosphatase regulates the dephosphorylated state of the GluN2B subunit through two pathways: by direct dephosphorylation of tyrosine-1472 and indirectly via dephosphorylation and inactivation of Fyn kinase. We previously demonstrated oxidative stress’s contribution to NMDAR signaling and distribution using SOD2+/− mice such a model. We performed TBI protocol using a controlled frontal impact device using C57BL/6 mice and SOD2+/− animals. After TBI, we found alterations in cognitive performance, NMDAR-dependent synaptic function (decreased synaptic form of NMDARs and decreased synaptic current NMDAR-dependent), and increased STEP61 activity. These changes are reduced partially with the STEP61-inhibitor TC-2153 treatment in mice subjected to TBI protocol. This study contributes with evidence about the role of STEP61 in the neuropathological progression after TBI and also the alteration in their activity, such as an early biomarker of synaptic damage in traumatic lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco J. Carvajal
- Laboratorio de Función y Patología Neuronal, Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración (CARE), Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8331150, Chile;
- Centro de Excelencia en Biomedicina de Magallanes (CEBIMA), Universidad de Magallanes, Punta Arenas 6200000, Chile
| | - Waldo Cerpa
- Laboratorio de Función y Patología Neuronal, Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración (CARE), Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8331150, Chile;
- Centro de Excelencia en Biomedicina de Magallanes (CEBIMA), Universidad de Magallanes, Punta Arenas 6200000, Chile
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +56-2-2354-2656; Fax: +56-2-2354-2660
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4
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Rudnitskaya EA, Burnyasheva AO, Kozlova TA, Muraleva NA, Telegina DV, Khomenko TM, Volcho KP, Salakhutdinov NF, Kolosova NG. Ambiguous Effects of Prolonged Dietary Supplementation with a Striatal-Enriched Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase Inhibitor, TC-2153, on a Rat Model of Sporadic Alzheimer’s Disease. NEUROCHEM J+ 2021. [DOI: 10.1134/s1819712421030090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia and is currently incurable. After unsuccessful attempts to create drugs targeting the amyloid-β pathway, a search for alternative approaches and treatments targeting nonamyloid AD pathologies is currently underway. One of them is inhibition of striatal-enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase (STEP) activity, which is increased in the prefrontal cortex of AD patients. Here we examined effects of prolonged treatment of OXYS rats which mimic key signs of sporadic AD with a STEP inhibitor, TC-2153, on the progression of signs of AD. TC-2153 had an ambiguous effect on the behavior of the animals: it significantly reduced the already low locomotor and exploratory activities and enhanced anxiety-related behavior in OXYS rats but improved their long-term memory in the Morris water maze. Moreover, TC-2153 had no effect on the accumulation of the amyloid-β protein and on the STEP61 protein level; the latter in the cortex and hippocampus did not differ between OXYS rats and control Wistar rats. These results suggest that the effects of prolonged treatment with TC-2153 may be mediated by mechanisms not related to STEP. In particular, TC-2153 can act as a potential hydrogen sulfide donor and thus substantially affect redox homeostasis.
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5
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Mahaman YAR, Huang F, Embaye KS, Wang X, Zhu F. The Implication of STEP in Synaptic Plasticity and Cognitive Impairments in Alzheimer's Disease and Other Neurological Disorders. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:680118. [PMID: 34195199 PMCID: PMC8236946 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.680118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
STriatal-Enriched protein tyrosine Phosphatase (STEP) is a tyrosine phosphatase that has been implicated in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common form of dementia, and many other neurological diseases. The protein level and activity of STEP have been found to be elevated in most of these disorders, and specifically in AD as a result of dysregulation of different pathways including PP2B/DARPP32/PP1, PKA as well as impairments of both proteasomal and lysosomal systems. The upregulation in STEP leads to increased binding to, and dephosphorylation of, its substrates which are mainly found to be synaptic plasticity and thus learning and memory related proteins. These proteins include kinases like Fyn, Pyk2, ERK1/2 and both NMDA and AMPA receptor subunits GluN2B and GluA2. The dephosphorylation of these molecules results in inactivation of these kinases and internalization of NMDA and AMPA receptor complexes leading to synapse loss and cognitive impairments. In this study, we aim to review STEP regulation and its implications in AD as well as other neurological disorders and then summarize data on targeting STEP as therapeutic strategy in these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yacoubou Abdoul Razak Mahaman
- Cognitive Impairment Ward of Neurology Department, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China.,Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Key Laboratory of Education Ministry of China for Neurological Disorders, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Fang Huang
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Key Laboratory of Education Ministry of China for Neurological Disorders, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Kidane Siele Embaye
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Key Laboratory of Education Ministry of China for Neurological Disorders, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaochuan Wang
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Key Laboratory of Education Ministry of China for Neurological Disorders, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Feiqi Zhu
- Cognitive Impairment Ward of Neurology Department, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
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6
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Domenici MR, Mallozzi C, Pepponi R, Casella I, Chiodi V, Ferrante A, Popoli P. Insight into the Role of the STriatal-Enriched Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase (STEP) in A 2A Receptor-Mediated Effects in the Central Nervous System. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:647742. [PMID: 33953681 PMCID: PMC8090931 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.647742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The STriatal-Enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase STEP is a brain-specific tyrosine phosphatase that plays a pivotal role in the mechanisms of learning and memory, and it has been demonstrated to be involved in several neuropsychiatric diseases. Recently, we found a functional interaction between STEP and adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR), a subtype of the adenosine receptor family widely expressed in the central nervous system, where it regulates motor behavior and cognition, and plays a role in cell survival and neurodegeneration. Specifically, we demonstrated the involvement of STEP in A2AR-mediated cocaine effects in the striatum and, more recently, we found that in the rat striatum and hippocampus, as well as in a neuroblastoma cell line, the overexpression of the A2AR, or its stimulation, results in an increase in STEP activity. In the present article we will discuss the functional implication of this interaction, trying to examine the possible mechanisms involved in this relation between STEP and A2ARs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rosaria Domenici
- National Centre for Drug Research and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanitá, Rome, Italy
| | - Cinzia Mallozzi
- Department of Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Rita Pepponi
- National Centre for Drug Research and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanitá, Rome, Italy
| | - Ida Casella
- National Centre for Drug Research and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanitá, Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Chiodi
- National Centre for Drug Research and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanitá, Rome, Italy
| | - Antonella Ferrante
- National Centre for Drug Research and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanitá, Rome, Italy
| | - Patrizia Popoli
- National Centre for Drug Research and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanitá, Rome, Italy
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7
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Chatterjee M, Kwon J, Benedict J, Kamceva M, Kurup P, Lombroso PJ. STEP inhibition prevents Aβ-mediated damage in dendritic complexity and spine density in Alzheimer's disease. Exp Brain Res 2021; 239:881-890. [PMID: 33420799 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-020-06028-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Loss of dendritic spines and decline of cognitive function are hallmarks of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Previous studies have shown that AD pathophysiology involves increased expression of a central nervous system-enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase called STEP (STriatal-Enriched protein tyrosine Phosphatase). STEP opposes the development of synaptic strengthening by dephosphorylating substrates, including GluN2B, Pyk2, and ERK1/2. Genetic reduction of STEP as well as pharmacological inhibition of STEP improve cognitive function and hippocampal memory in the 3×Tg-AD mouse model. Here, we show that the improved cognitive function is accompanied by an increase in synaptic connectivity in cell cultures as well as in the triple transgenic AD mouse model, further highlighting the potential of STEP inhibitors as a therapeutic agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manavi Chatterjee
- Child Study Center, Yale University, 230 South Frontage Rd, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.
| | - Jeemin Kwon
- Child Study Center, Yale University, 230 South Frontage Rd, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Jessie Benedict
- Child Study Center, Yale University, 230 South Frontage Rd, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Marija Kamceva
- Child Study Center, Yale University, 230 South Frontage Rd, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Pradeep Kurup
- Child Study Center, Yale University, 230 South Frontage Rd, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.,Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1900 University Blvd, Birmingham, AL, 35233, United States
| | - Paul J Lombroso
- Child Study Center, Yale University, 230 South Frontage Rd, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA. .,Departments of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA. .,Departments of Neurobiology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.
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8
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Kulikova EA, Moskaliuk VS, Rodnyy AY, Bazovkina DV. Effect of Aging on the Behavior and Brain Expression of Genes Encoding Kaiso, BDNF, CREB, and STEP Proteins in Mice. ADVANCES IN GERONTOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1134/s2079057021010410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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9
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Lei T, Dong D, Song M, Sun Y, Liu X, Zhao H. Rislenemdaz treatment in the lateral habenula improves despair-like behavior in mice. Neuropsychopharmacology 2020; 45:1717-1724. [PMID: 32147667 PMCID: PMC7419533 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-020-0652-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2019] [Revised: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The specific GluN2B antagonist rislenemdaz (Ris; a.k.a. MK-0657 and CERC-301) is in phase II clinical trial as an antidepressive drug, but the working mechanism for its antidepressant effects is not clearly understood. Given the important role of the lateral habenula (LHb) in the pathogenesis of depression and the fact that GluN2B-containing N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are expressed in the LHb, we conducted a study to examine whether the LHb mediates Ris' antidepressant effects in a chronic restraint stress (CRS)-induced depressive-like mouse model. In this study, Ris was administered systemically or locally into the LHb. Short hairpin RNAs were used to knockdown BDNF in the LHb. Depressive-like behaviors were assessed with the open field test, forced swimming test, tail suspension test, and sucrose preference test. Expression of GluN2B, BDNF, and c-Fos in the LHb were analyzed with western blotting and immunohistochemistry under condition with Ris administered systemically or with BDNF knockdown in the LHb. We found that both systemic and intra-LHb administration of Ris alleviated CRS-induced despair-like behavior and that systemic Ris reduced LHb expression of GluN2B, BDNF, and c-Fos (a neuronal activity marker). Specific knockdown of BDNF in the LHb prevented CRS-induced despair-like behavior, while preventing CRS-induced increases in BDNF and c-Fos expression in the LHb. Together these results suggest that Ris may exert its antidepressant effects through affecting the LHb such as downregulating BDNF expression in the LHb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Lei
- grid.430605.40000 0004 1758 4110Neuroscience Research Center, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130021 PR China ,grid.64924.3d0000 0004 1760 5735Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130021 PR China
| | - Dan Dong
- grid.430605.40000 0004 1758 4110Department of Nephrology, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130021 PR China
| | - Meiying Song
- grid.430605.40000 0004 1758 4110Neuroscience Research Center, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130021 PR China
| | - Yanfei Sun
- grid.64924.3d0000 0004 1760 5735Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130021 PR China
| | - Xiaofeng Liu
- grid.430605.40000 0004 1758 4110Neuroscience Research Center, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130021 PR China
| | - Hua Zhao
- Neuroscience Research Center, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, PR China. .,Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, PR China.
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10
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Telegina DV, Kulikova EA, Kozhevnikova OS, Kulikov AV, Khomenko TM, Volcho KP, Salakhutdinov NF, Kolosova NG. Alterations of STEP46 and STEP61 Expression in the Rat Retina with Age and AMD-Like Retinopathy Development. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E5182. [PMID: 32707818 PMCID: PMC7432912 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21155182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Tyrosine phosphatase STEP (striatal-enriched tyrosine protein phosphatase) is a brain-specific protein phosphatase and is involved in the pathogenesis of many neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we examined the impact of STEP on the development of age-related macular degeneration (AMD)-like pathology in senescence-accelerated OXYS rats. Using OXYS and Wistar rats (control), we for the first time demonstrated age-dependent changes in Ptpn5 mRNA expression, STEP46 and STEP61 protein levels, and their phosphatase activity in the retina. The increases in STEP protein levels and the decrease of total and STEP phosphatase activities in the retina (as compared with Wistar rats) preceded the manifestation of clinical signs of AMD in OXYS rats (age 20 days). There were no differences in these retinal parameters between 13-month-old Wistar rats and OXYS rats with pronounced signs of AMD. Inhibition of STEP with TC-2153 during progressive AMD-like retinopathy (from 9 to 13 months of age) reduced the thickness of the retinal inner nuclear layer, as evidenced by a decreased amount of parvalbumin-positive amacrine neurons. Prolonged treatment with TC-2153 had no effect on Ptpn5 mRNA expression, STEP46 and STEP61 protein levels, and their phosphatase activity in the OXYS retina. Thus, TC-2153 may negatively affect the retina through mechanisms unrelated to STEP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darya V. Telegina
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences (SB RAS), Pr. Lavrentyeva 10, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (E.A.K.); (O.S.K.); (A.V.K.); (N.G.K.)
| | - Elizabeth A. Kulikova
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences (SB RAS), Pr. Lavrentyeva 10, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (E.A.K.); (O.S.K.); (A.V.K.); (N.G.K.)
| | - Oyuna S. Kozhevnikova
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences (SB RAS), Pr. Lavrentyeva 10, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (E.A.K.); (O.S.K.); (A.V.K.); (N.G.K.)
| | - Alexander V. Kulikov
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences (SB RAS), Pr. Lavrentyeva 10, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (E.A.K.); (O.S.K.); (A.V.K.); (N.G.K.)
| | - Tatyana M. Khomenko
- N.N. Vorozhtsov Institute of Organic Chemistry, SB RAS, 9 Lavrentieva Avenue, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (T.M.K.); (K.P.V.); (N.F.S.)
| | - Konstantin P. Volcho
- N.N. Vorozhtsov Institute of Organic Chemistry, SB RAS, 9 Lavrentieva Avenue, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (T.M.K.); (K.P.V.); (N.F.S.)
| | - Nariman F. Salakhutdinov
- N.N. Vorozhtsov Institute of Organic Chemistry, SB RAS, 9 Lavrentieva Avenue, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (T.M.K.); (K.P.V.); (N.F.S.)
| | - Nataliya G. Kolosova
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences (SB RAS), Pr. Lavrentyeva 10, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (E.A.K.); (O.S.K.); (A.V.K.); (N.G.K.)
- N.N. Vorozhtsov Institute of Organic Chemistry, SB RAS, 9 Lavrentieva Avenue, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (T.M.K.); (K.P.V.); (N.F.S.)
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11
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Won S, Roche KW. Regulation of glutamate receptors by striatal-enriched tyrosine phosphatase 61 (STEP 61 ). J Physiol 2020; 599:443-451. [PMID: 32170729 DOI: 10.1113/jp278703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphorylation regulates glutamate receptor trafficking. The cytosolic C-terminal domains of both NMDA receptors (NMDARs) and AMPA receptors (AMPARs) have distinct motifs, which are substrates for serine/threonine and tyrosine phosphorylation. Decades of research have shown how phosphorylation of glutamate receptors mediates protein binding and receptor trafficking, ultimately controlling synaptic transmission and plasticity. STEP is a protein tyrosine phosphatase (also known as PTPN5), with several isoforms resulting from alternative splicing. Targets of STEP include a variety of important synaptic substrates, among which are the tyrosine kinase Fyn and glutamate receptors. In particular, STEP61 , the longest isoform, dephosphorylates the NMDAR subunit GluN2B and strongly regulates the expression of NMDARs at synapses. This interplay between STEP, Fyn and GluN2B-containing NMDARs has been characterized by multiple groups. More recently, STEP61 was shown to bind to AMPARs in a subunit-specific manner and differentially regulate synaptic NMDARs and AMPARs. Because of its many effects on synaptic proteins, STEP has been implicated in regulating excitatory synapses during plasticity and playing a role in synaptic dysfunction in a variety of neurological disorders. In this review, we will highlight the ways in which STEP61 differentially regulates NMDARs and AMPARs, as well as its role in plasticity and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sehoon Won
- Receptor Biology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Katherine W Roche
- Receptor Biology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
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12
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Dufort-Gervais J, Provost C, Charbonneau L, Norris CM, Calon F, Mongrain V, Brouillette J. Neuroligin-1 is altered in the hippocampus of Alzheimer's disease patients and mouse models, and modulates the toxicity of amyloid-beta oligomers. Sci Rep 2020; 10:6956. [PMID: 32332783 PMCID: PMC7181681 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-63255-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Synapse loss occurs early and correlates with cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Synaptotoxicity is driven, at least in part, by amyloid-beta oligomers (Aβo), but the exact synaptic components targeted by Aβo remain to be identified. We here tested the hypotheses that the post-synaptic protein Neuroligin-1 (NLGN1) is affected early in the process of neurodegeneration in the hippocampus, and specifically by Aβo, and that it can modulate Aβo toxicity. We found that hippocampal NLGN1 was decreased in patients with AD in comparison to patients with mild cognitive impairment and control subjects. Female 3xTg-AD mice also showed a decreased NLGN1 level in the hippocampus at an early age (i.e., 4 months). We observed that chronic hippocampal Aβo injections initially increased the expression of one specific Nlgn1 transcript, which was followed by a clear decrease. Lastly, the absence of NLGN1 decreased neuronal counts in the dentate gyrus, which was not the case in wild-type animals, and worsens impairment in spatial learning following chronic hippocampal Aβo injections. Our findings support that NLGN1 is impacted early during neurodegenerative processes, and that Aβo contributes to this effect. Moreover, our results suggest that the presence of NLGN1 favors the cognitive prognosis during Aβo-driven neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Dufort-Gervais
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- Center for Advanced Research in Sleep Medicine, Hôpital du Sacré-Coeur de Montréal (Recherche CIUSSS-NIM), Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Chloé Provost
- Center for Advanced Research in Sleep Medicine, Hôpital du Sacré-Coeur de Montréal (Recherche CIUSSS-NIM), Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | | | - Christopher M Norris
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Pharmacology, Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Frédéric Calon
- Neuroscience Unit, Research Center - CHU de Québec, Québec, QC, Canada
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Valérie Mongrain
- Center for Advanced Research in Sleep Medicine, Hôpital du Sacré-Coeur de Montréal (Recherche CIUSSS-NIM), Montréal, Québec, Canada.
- Department of Neuroscience, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada.
| | - Jonathan Brouillette
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada.
- Center for Advanced Research in Sleep Medicine, Hôpital du Sacré-Coeur de Montréal (Recherche CIUSSS-NIM), Montréal, Québec, Canada.
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13
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Mallozzi C, Pepponi R, Visentin S, Chiodi V, Lombroso PJ, Bader M, Popoli P, Domenici MR. The activity of the Striatal-enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase in neuronal cells is modulated by adenosine A 2A receptor. J Neurochem 2019; 152:284-298. [PMID: 31520531 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2019] [Revised: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
We recently demonstrated that a tonic activation of adenosine A2A receptors (A2A Rs) is required for cocaine-induced synaptic depression and increase in the activity of STriatal-Enriched protein tyrosine Phosphatase (STEP). In this study, we elaborated on the relationship between A2A R and STEP using genetic, pharmacological, and cellular tools. We found that the activities of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs), and in particular of STEP, are significantly increased in the striatum and hippocampus of a transgenic rat strain over-expressing the neuronal A2A R (NSEA2A ) with respect to wild-type (WT) rats. Moreover the selective A2A R agonist 4-[2-[[6-Amino-9-(N-ethyl-β-d-ribofuranuronamidosyl)-9H-purin-2-yl]amino]ethyl]benzenepropanoic acid hydrochloride up-regulates PTPs and STEP activities in WT but not in NSEA2A rats, while the selective A2A R antagonist 4-(-2-[7-amino-2-{2-furyl}{1,2,4}triazolo{2,3-a} {1,3,5}triazin-5-yl-amino]ethyl)phenol restores the tyrosine phosphatase activities in NSEA2A , having no effects in WT rats. In addition, while cocaine induced the activation of PTP and STEP in WT rats, it failed to increase phosphatase activity in NSEA2A rats. A2A Rs modulate STEP activity also in the SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cell line, where a calcium-dependent calcineurin/PP1 pathway was found to play a major role. In summary, the present study identified a novel interaction between A2A R and STEP that could have important clinical implications, since STEP has emerged as key regulator of signaling pathways involved in neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases and A2A Rs are considered a promising target for the development of therapeutic strategies for different diseases of the central nervous system. Read the Editorial Highlight for this article on page 270.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Mallozzi
- Department of Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Rita Pepponi
- National Centre for Drug Research and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Sergio Visentin
- National Centre for Drug Research and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Chiodi
- National Centre for Drug Research and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Paul J Lombroso
- Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Michael Bader
- Max-Delbrűck-Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Patrizia Popoli
- National Centre for Drug Research and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Rosaria Domenici
- National Centre for Drug Research and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
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14
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Adenosine A2A receptor as potential therapeutic target in neuropsychiatric disorders. Pharmacol Res 2019; 147:104338. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2019.104338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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15
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Blázquez G, Castañé A, Saavedra A, Masana M, Alberch J, Pérez-Navarro E. Social Memory and Social Patterns Alterations in the Absence of STriatal-Enriched Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase. Front Behav Neurosci 2019; 12:317. [PMID: 30760987 PMCID: PMC6362413 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
STriatal-Enriched protein tyrosine Phosphatase (STEP) is a neural-specific protein that opposes the development of synaptic strengthening and whose levels are altered in several neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders. Since STEP is expressed in brain regions implicated in social behavior, namely the striatum, the CA2 region of the hippocampus, cortex and amygdala, here we investigated whether social memory and social patterns were altered in STEP knockout (KO) mice. Our data robustly demonstrated that STEP KO mice presented specific social memory impairment as indicated by the three-chamber sociability test, the social discrimination test, the 11-trial habituation/dishabituation social recognition test, and the novel object recognition test (NORT). This affectation was not related to deficiencies in the detection of social olfactory cues, altered sociability or anxiety levels. However, STEP KO mice showed lower exploratory activity, reduced interaction time with an intruder, less dominant behavior and higher immobility time in the tail suspension test than controls, suggesting alterations in motivation. Moreover, the extracellular levels of dopamine (DA), but not serotonin (5-HT), were increased in the dorsal striatum of STEP KO mice. Overall, our results indicate that STEP deficiency disrupts social memory and other social behaviors as well as DA homeostasis in the dorsal striatum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Blázquez
- Departament de Biomedicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anna Castañé
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Neurochemistry and Neuropharmacology, CSIC-Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona (IIBB), Barcelona, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ana Saavedra
- Departament de Biomedicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mercè Masana
- Departament de Biomedicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Alberch
- Departament de Biomedicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Esther Pérez-Navarro
- Departament de Biomedicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
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16
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Waters EM, Mazid S, Dodos M, Puri R, Janssen WG, Morrison JH, McEwen BS, Milner TA. Effects of estrogen and aging on synaptic morphology and distribution of phosphorylated Tyr1472 NR2B in the female rat hippocampus. Neurobiol Aging 2018; 73:200-210. [PMID: 30384123 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2018.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Revised: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Age and estrogens may impact the mobility of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) in hippocampal synapses. Here, we used serial section immunogold electron microscopy to examine whether phosphorylated tyrosine 1472 NR2B (pY1472), which is involved in the surface expression of NMDARs, is altered in the dorsal hippocampus of young (3-4 months old) and aged (∼24 months old) ovariectomized rats treated with 17β-estradiol or vehicle for 2 days. The number of gold particles labeling pY1472 was higher in presynaptic and postsynaptic compartments of aged rats with low estradiol (vehicle-treated) compared to other groups. In terminals, pY1472 levels were elevated in aged rats but reduced by estradiol treatment to levels seen in young rats. Conversely, the mitochondria number was lower in aged females but was restored to young levels by estradiol. In the postsynaptic density and dendritic spines, estradiol reduced pY1472 in young and aged rats. As phosphorylation at Y1472 blocks NR2B endocytosis, reduction of pY1472 by estradiol suggests another mechanism through which estrogen enhances synaptic plasticity by altering localization of NMDAR subunits within synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth M Waters
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sanoara Mazid
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mariana Dodos
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Rishi Puri
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - William G Janssen
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - John H Morrison
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neuroscience, The California National Primate Research Center, UC Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Bruce S McEwen
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Teresa A Milner
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA; Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
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17
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Saavedra A, Ballesteros JJ, Tyebji S, Martínez-Torres S, Blázquez G, López-Hidalgo R, Azkona G, Alberch J, Martín ED, Pérez-Navarro E. Proteolytic Degradation of Hippocampal STEP 61 in LTP and Learning. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 56:1475-1487. [PMID: 29948948 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1170-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Striatal-enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase (STEP) modulates key signaling molecules involved in synaptic plasticity and neuronal function. It is postulated that STEP opposes the development of long-term potentiation (LTP) and that it exerts a restraint on long-term memory (LTM). Here, we examined whether STEP61 levels are regulated during hippocampal LTP and after training in hippocampal-dependent tasks. We found that after inducing LTP by high frequency stimulation or theta-burst stimulation STEP61 levels were significantly reduced, with a concomitant increase of STEP33 levels, a product of calpain cleavage. Importantly, inhibition of STEP with TC-2153 improved LTP in hippocampal slices. Moreover, we observed that after training in the passive avoidance and the T-maze spontaneous alternation task, hippocampal STEP61 levels were significantly reduced, but STEP33 levels were unchanged. Yet, hippocampal BDNF content and TrkB levels were increased in trained mice, and it is known that BDNF promotes STEP degradation through the proteasome. Accordingly, hippocampal pTrkBTyr816, pPLCγTyr783, and protein ubiquitination levels were increased in T-SAT trained mice. Remarkably, injection of the TrkB antagonist ANA-12 (2 mg/Kg, but not 0.5 mg/Kg) elicited LTM deficits and promoted STEP61 accumulation in the hippocampus. Also, STEP knockout mice outperformed wild-type animals in an age- and test-dependent manner. Summarizing, STEP61 undergoes proteolytic degradation in conditions leading to synaptic strengthening and memory formation, thus highlighting its role as a molecular constrain, which is removed to enable the activation of pathways important for plasticity processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Saavedra
- Departament de Biomedicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, C/ Casanova, 143 08036, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesús J Ballesteros
- Institute for Research in Neurological Disabilities (IDINE), University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain.,Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Shiraz Tyebji
- Departament de Biomedicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, C/ Casanova, 143 08036, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Infection and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Sara Martínez-Torres
- Departament de Biomedicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, C/ Casanova, 143 08036, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.,Departament de Ciències Experimentals i de la Salut, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Gloria Blázquez
- Departament de Biomedicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, C/ Casanova, 143 08036, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Rosa López-Hidalgo
- Institute for Research in Neurological Disabilities (IDINE), University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain.,Grupo de Patología Celular y Molecular del Alcohol, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Valencia, Spain
| | - Garikoitz Azkona
- Departament de Biomedicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, C/ Casanova, 143 08036, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jordi Alberch
- Departament de Biomedicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, C/ Casanova, 143 08036, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Eduardo D Martín
- Institute for Research in Neurological Disabilities (IDINE), University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain.,Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Esther Pérez-Navarro
- Departament de Biomedicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, C/ Casanova, 143 08036, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. .,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.
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