Increased expression of interleukin 36 in chronic rhinosinusitis and its contribution to chemokine secretion and increased epithelial permeability

The Role of TRPV1/CGRP Pathway Activated by Prevotella melaninogenica in Pathogenesis of Oral Lichen Planus

The distinctive clinicopathologic characteristics of OLP indicated that both microbial dysbiosis and neurogenic inflammation may be jointly involved in its progression, and transient receptor potential vanilloid receptor-1 (TRPV1) may be a crucial element. The purpose of this study was to explore how TRPV1 mediated P. melaninogenica-induced inflammation. Meanwhile, we aimed to unravel how IL-36γ dysregulated the barrier function in oral keratinocytes. Here, the expression of TRPV1, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), and its receptor receptor activity-modifying protein 1 (RAMP1) in OLP patients were detected. Prevotella melaninogenica (P. melaninogenica) was used to build a mouse model of oral chronic inflammation. Normal human oral keratinocytes (NHOKs) stimulated by P. melaninogenica were used to examine TRPV1 activation and CGRP release. To investigate the effect of exogenous CGRP on Interleukin-36 gamma (IL-36γ) expression in NHOKs and bacterial viability, P. melaninogenica and NHOKs were treated with it, respectively. Recombinant IL-36γ protein was used to probe its regulation of oral epithelial barrier function. TRPV1, CGRP, and RAMP1 were substantially expressed in OLP. P. melaninogenica increased TRPV1 expression in mice and caused the release of CGRP and an increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines via activating TRPV1 in NHOKs. Blockade of TRPV1 suppressed P. melaninogenica-induced inflammation. CGRP boosted the production of IL-36γ released by NHOKs, resulting in lower expression of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1). Also, CGRP can decrease the viability of P. melaninogenica. Together, these findings provide fresh insight into the vital role performed by P. melaninogenica-induced functional changes in oral epithelial cells and neurons in an intricate OLP inflammatory process.

Label-Free Quantitative Proteomics Analysis of Nasal Lavage Fluid in Chronic Rhinosinusitis with Nasal Polyposis

(1) Background: Chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) is a common chronic inflammation of the nasal mucosa and the paranasal sinuses. The pathogenesis of chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) is multifactorial and, as of yet, not well understood. (2) Methods: Nasal lavage fluid samples were collected from patients diagnosed with chronic sinusitis with nasal polyposis (CRSwNP) (n = 10) and individuals without sinusitis (control group) (n = 10) who had no nasal complaints. In the present study, we used an untargeted label-free LC-MS/MS mass spectrometric approach combined with bioinformatics and network pathway analysis to compare the changes in the proteomic profiles of the CRSwNP group and the control group. Data from LC-MS/MS underwent univariate and multivariate analyses. (3) Results: The proteomic analyses revealed distinct differences in the abundances of nasal lavage fluid proteins between the CRSwNP and control groups: a total of 234 proteins, 151 up- and 83 down-regulated in CRSwNP. Functional Gene Ontology (GO) analysis showed that dysregulated proteins were involved in airway inflammatory reaction, immune response, and oxidative stress. The biomarkers were evaluated using the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve; an Area Under the Curve (AUC) of 0.999 (95% CI) identified potential biomarkers between the CRSwNP and control group. EMILIN-3 and RAB11-binding protein RELCH were down-regulated, and Macrophage migration inhibitory factor and deoxyribonuclease-1 were up-regulated, in CRSwNP compared to the control group. (4) Conclusions: These differentially expressed proteins identified in CRSwNP are involved in airway inflammatory reaction, immune response, and oxidative stress. In particular, the identification of increased interleukin-36 gamma (IL-36γ), which contributes to inflammatory response, and a decrease in SOD, in this group are notable findings. In the future, several of these proteins may prove useful for exploring the pathogenesis of nasal polyps and chronic sinusitis or as objective biomarkers for quantitatively monitoring disease progression or response to therapy.

The Interleukin-15 and Interleukin-8 Axis as a Novel Mechanism for Recurrent Chronic Rhinosinusitis with Nasal Polyps

The prevention of postoperative recurrence after endoscopic sinus surgery (ESS) relies on targeting specific pathological mechanisms according to individuals' immunological profiles. However, essential biomarkers and biological characteristics of difficult-to-treat chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) patients are not well-defined. The aim of this study was to explore the immunologic profiles of subgroups of CRS patients and determine the specific cytokines responsible for recalcitrant or recurrent CRS with nasal polyposis (rCRSwNP). We used 30 cytokine antibody arrays to determine the key cytokines related to recurrent polypogenesis. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) experiments were conducted to assess the levels of these key cytokines in 78 patients. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) isolated from nasal polyps were challenged with specific cytokines to examine the levels of enhanced interleukin (IL)-8 production. Finally, we used immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining to check for the presence and distribution of the biomarkers within nasal polyps. A cytokine antibody array revealed that IL-8, IL-13, IL-15, and IL-20 were significantly higher in the recalcitrant CRSwNP group. Subsequent ELISA screening showed a stepwise increase in tissue IL-8 levels in the CHR, CRSsNP, and CRSwNP groups. PMNs isolated from nine CRSwNP cases all demonstrated enhanced IL-8 production after IL-15 treatment. IHC staining was labeled concurrent IL-8 and IL-15 expression in areas of prominent neutrophil infiltration. Our results suggest that IL-15 within the sinonasal mucosa plays a crucial role in promoting IL-8 secretion by infiltrating PMNs in recalcitrant nasal polyps. In addition, we propose a novel therapeutic strategy targeting the anti-IL-15/IL-8 axis to treat CRS with nasal polyposis.

Emerging Role of the IL-36/IL-36R Axis in Multiple Inflammatory Skin Diseases

IL-36 is a most recent member of the IL-1 cytokine family, primarily expressed at barrier sites of the body such as the skin, lungs, and intestine. It plays a vital role in inflammation and is implicated in the development of various cutaneous; intestinal; and pulmonary disorders, including psoriasis, inflammatory bowel disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. IL-36 comprises 4 isoforms: the proinflammatory IL-36α, IL-36β, and IL-36γ and the anti-inflammatory IL-36R antagonist. An imbalance between proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory IL-36 isoforms can contribute to the inflammatory fate of cells and tissues. IL-36 cytokines signal through an IL-36R heterodimer mediating their function through canonical signaling cacade, including the NF-B pathway. Prominent for its role in psoriasis, IL-36 has recently been associated with disease mechanisms in atopic dermatitis, hidradenitis suppurativa, neutrophilic dermatoses, autoimmune blistering disease, and Netherton syndrome. The major cutaneous source of IL-36 cytokines is keratinocytes, pointing to its role in the communication between the epidermis, innate (neutrophils, dendritic cells) immune system, and adaptive (T helper [Th]1 cells, Th17) immune system. Thus, cutaneous IL-36 signaling is crucial for the immunopathological outcome of various skin diseases. Consequently, the IL-36/IL-36R axis has recently been recognized as a promising drug target for the treatment of inflammatory disorders beyond psoriasis. This review summarizes the current update on IL-36 cytokines in inflammatory skin diseases.

Correlations between IL-36 family cytokines in peripheral blood and subjective and objective assessment results in patients with allergic rhinitis

BACKGROUND

Interleukin (IL)-36 family cytokines have received increasing attention, especially in the fields of inflammation and immunity research. However, whether IL-36 family cytokine levels are correlated with the results of the assessment of allergic rhinitis (AR) and affect the severity of AR remains unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the correlations between IL-36 family cytokine levels and subjective and objective assessment results and to further analyze the possible mechanisms of IL-36 family cytokines in the development of AR.

METHODS

An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to detect the concentrations of the IL-36 family cytokines IL-36α, IL-36β, IL-36γ, IL-36Ra, and IL-38 in the peripheral blood of patients with AR. The condition of patients with AR was assessed by 22-item sino-nasal outcome test (SNOT-22) score, visual analogue scale (VAS) scores for disease severity, and serum inhalant allergen immunoglobulin E (IgE) detection. Correlations between IL-36 family cytokine levels and subjective and objective assessment results in patients with AR were analyzed.

RESULTS

The concentration of IL-36α in the peripheral blood of patients with AR was the highest, and the concentration of IL-36β was the lowest. The concentration of IL-36α was higher in juvenile patients than in adult patients, and there was a difference in the IL-36Ra level between the perennial allergen group and the seasonal allergen group. There was a positive correlation between IL-36α level and IL-36γ level, IL-36γ level and IL-36Ra level, and IL-36Ra level and IL-38 level, and IL-36β level was positively correlated with IL-36Ra and IL-38 levels, respectively. IL-36α level was positively correlated with VAS score for nasal congestion symptom. IL-36β level was positively correlated with the total VAS score for ocular symptoms and VAS scores for ocular itching and eye pain symptoms. However, there was no correlation between the levels of all cytokines in IL-36 family and SNOT-22 score, the number of positive inhaled allergens, or the highest positive intensity of allergen specific immunoglobulin E (sIgE).

CONCLUSION

Peripheral blood IL-36 family cytokines play an important role in AR, and the concentrations of IL-36α and IL-36β were related to the severity of symptoms in patients with AR.

The role of interleukin 36γ in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition process of chronic rhinosinusitis: A pilot study

PURPOSE

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is an important characteristic in the remodelling of chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP). IL-36γ and fibroblast activation protein (FAP) may exacerbate remodelling in CRS. Here, we aimed to determine whether IL-36γ and FAP expression are associated with EMT and may be a predictor for CRSwNP prognosis.

METHODS

Fifty-two non-Eos CRSwNP patients and 12 control patients were obtained and were followed up for more than 1 year after surgery. IL-36γ, FAP and EMT markers expression were evaluated by real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot. Masson trichrome staining was adopted to assess tissue fibrotic changes. Furthermore, the soluble form of IL-36γ and FAP in nasal secretions was detected by ELISA.

RESULTS

While basal expression of E-cadherin decreased, the expression of IL-36γ, vimentin and FAP increased in nasal polyps. In well-prognosis patients, the expression of IL-36γ, vimentin and FAP were significantly decreased than in poor-prognosis patients, while the protein expression of E-cadherin was increased. The protein expression of IL-36γ was notably increased in recurrent nasal polyps than in preoperation specimens. A positive relationship between IL-36γ and FAP expression, a negative relationship between IL-36γ and E-cad expression was noted. The soluble form of IL-36γ and FAP increased during the development of non-Eos CRSwNP, with the highest level in poor-prognosis patients after surgery.

CONCLUSION

Non-Eos CRSwNP have partially undergone EMT under baseline conditions. IL-36γ and FAP expression were related with EMT, the soluble form of IL-36γ and FAP in nasal secretions may predict the prognosis of patients.

The Expression of ephrinA1/ephA2 Receptor Increases in Chronic Rhinosinusitis and ephrinA1/ephA2 Signaling Affects Rhinovirus-Induced Innate Immunity in Human Sinonasal Epithelial Cells

EphA2 receptor and its ephrin ligands are involved in virus infection, epithelial permeability, and chemokine secretion. We hypothesized that ephrinA1/ephA2 signaling participates in rhinovirus (RV)-induced antiviral immune response in sinonasal mucosa of patients with chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS). Therefore, we investigated the expression of ephrinA1/ephA2 in normal and inflamed sinonasal mucosa and evaluated whether they regulate chemokine secretion and the production of antiviral immune mediators including interferons (IFNs) in RV-infected human primary sinonasal epithelial cells. For this purpose, the expression and distribution of ephrinA1/ephA2 in sinonasal mucosa were evaluated with RT-qPCR, immunofluorescence, and western blot. Their roles in chemokine secretion and the production of antiviral immune mediators such as type I and III IFNs, and interferon stimulated genes were evaluated by stimulating ephA2 with ephrinA1 and inactivating ephA2 with ephA2 siRNA or inhibitor in cells exposed to RV and poly(I:C). We found that ephrinA1/ephA2 were expressed in normal mucosa and their levels increased in inflamed sinonasal mucosa of CRS patients. RV infection or poly(I:C) treatment induced chemokine secretion which were attenuated by blocking the action of ephA2 with ephA2 siRNA or inhibitor. The production of antiviral immune mediators enhanced by rhinovirus or poly (I:C) is increased by blocking ephA2 compared with that of cells stimulated by either rhinovirus or poly(I:C) alone. In addition, blocking ephA2 attenuated RV replication in cultured cells. Taken together, these results describe a novel role of ephrinA1/ephA2 signaling in antiviral innate immune response in sinonasal epithelium, suggesting their participation in RV-induced development and exacerbations of CRS.

The Role of IL-36 in Infectious Diseases: Potential Target for COVID-19?

IL-36 is a member of the interleukin 1 cytokine family, which is currently experiencing a renaissance due to the growing understanding of its context-dependent roles and advances in our understanding of the inflammatory response. The immunological role of IL-36 has revealed its profound and indispensable functional roles in psoriasis, as well as in several inflammatory diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and cancer. More recently, an increasing body of evidence suggests that IL-36 plays a crucial role in viral, bacterial and fungal infections. There is a growing interest as to whether IL-36 contributes to host protective immune responses against infection as well as the potential implications of IL-36 for the development of new therapeutic strategies. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in understanding cellular expression, regulatory mechanisms and biological roles of IL-36 in infectious diseases, which suggest more specific strategies to maneuver IL-36 as a diagnostic or therapeutic target, especially in COVID-19.