Neurotoxic effect of triazophos on goldfish (Carassius auratus) and tissue specific antioxidant responses

Toxicological risk assessment of triadimenol for human exposure, broiler health, and food safety

Triadimenol, a widely used triazole fungicide, leaves residues that pose risks to broiler health, food safety, and human health. Current studies focus on lab animals, leaving limited data regarding its impact on non-target organisms in agricultural ecosystems. Moreover, the doses in current studies often exceed typical agricultural pollution levels of triadimenol. Therefore, this study evaluates the toxic effects of triadimenol by exposing broilers to different concentrations (0.05-20 mg/kg) in their feed for 42 days, assessing growth performance, organ index, hematological parameters, histopathology, jejunum morphology, and tissue residues. The results show that triadimenol contamination at 0.05-20 mg/kg in feed does not significantly affect broiler growth performance. However, the significant changes in hematological parameters suggest the potential hematological toxicity of triadimenol in broilers. Triadimenol at 1 mg/kg or higher induces hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic effects, and significantly alters kidney organ index and histopathology in broilers. Additionally, when the triadimenol contamination level in feed exceeds 1 mg/kg, the residues in edible tissues of broilers exceed the limits set by the EU and China. Overall, our study indicates that even low-dose exposure to triadimenol poses potential risks, highlighting the need for strict regulation of its use in agriculture to protect food safety and human health.

Mixture effect of parental exposure to triazophos and fenvalerate on the early development of zebrafish offspring

Triazophos (TRI) and fenvalerate (FEN) have been extensively used in the world and frequently coexist in the water environments, might pose health risk to aquatic species. However, investigations of their mixture toxic effects on offspring after parental exposure have been neglected, especially for aquatic vertebrates such fish. To address this knowledge gap, parental zebrafish (F0 generation) were exposed to TRI, FEN and their mixture for 60 days, as well as the embryos (F1 generation) were hatched without or with continued corresponding exposures at the same concentrations until 7 days post fertilization. The results exhibited that exposure to TRI and FEN altered the expression levels of biomarkers associated with several biological processes, such as apoptosis and inflammatory response. Compared to individual exposure in the F1 generation, the co-exposure to TRI and FEN resulted in increased the expression of T4 and cc-chem mRNA and decreased the expression of ROS, trα, il-8, and gpx mRNA when the F0 generation was similarly exposed. These results revealed that the co-exposure to TRI and FEN has detrimental effects on fish progeny following parental exposure, even if the progeny are not directly exposed to the pesticides, and such negative effects may be intensified if the offspring continue to be exposed. This study enhances the understanding of the harmful impacts of parental exposure to the pesticide mixture on descendants and holds implications for the ecological risk assessment of pesticide mixtures in aquatic vertebrates. Further mechanistic studies are necessary to gain a deeper insight into the mixture effects of pesticides and other kinds of pollutants on subsequent offspring following parental exposure.

Comprehensive multi-omics investigation of sub-chronic toxicity induced by Cadmium and Triazophos Co-exposure in hook snout carps (Opsariichthys bidens)

The coexistence of heavy metals and pesticides poses a critical challenge in agricultural ecosystems. Traditional toxicity assessments often focus only on the individual impacts of either pesticides or heavy metals. Here, the untargeted metabolomics and 16 S rRNA sequencing were used to assess the individual and combined effects of cadmium (Cd) and triazophos (TRI) on hook snout carps (Opsariichthys bidens). Cd caused much more serious impacts on hepatic metabolism and gut microbiota than those in TRI. Combined Cd and TRI exposure synergistically affected hepatic metabolism, causing mitochondrial dysfunction and even oxidative damage. Simultaneously, 16 S rRNA sequencing highlighted significant variations in the composition and abundance of gut microbiota. A noteworthy connection emerged between these distinct microbiota profiles and disruptions in energy metabolism, ultimately leading to disorders in metabolites. These findings enhanced the understanding of risks posed by heavy metals and pesticides, providing insights for better environmental risk assessments of aquatic organisms.

Bioaccumulation mediated by water solubility leads to differences in the acute toxicity of organophosphorus insecticides to zebrafish (Danio rerio)

The use of some organophosphate insecticides is restricted or even banned in paddy fields due to their high toxicity to aquatic organisms. The aim of this study is to elucidate the main pathways and target organs of organophosphate insecticide toxicity to fish exposed via different routes by integrating histopathological and biochemical techniques. Using malathion as the model drug, when the dosage is 20-60 mg/L, the toxicity of whole body and head immersion drugs to zebrafish is much higher than that of trunk immersion drugs. A dose of 21.06-190.44 mg/kg of malathion feed was fed to adult zebrafish. Although the dosage was already high, no obvious toxicity was observed. Therefore, we believe that the drug mainly enters the fish body through the gills. When exposed to a drug solution of 20 mg/L and 60 mg/L, the fish showed significant neurological behavioral abnormalities, and the pathological damage to key organs and brain tissue was the most severe, showing obvious vacuolization and the highest residual amount (8.72-47.78 mg/L). The activity of acetylcholinesterase was the most inhibited (54.69-74.68%). Therefore, brain tissue is the key toxic target organ of malathion in fish. In addition, we compared the bioaccumulation effects of different water-soluble organophosphorus insecticides in fish and their toxic effects. We found that the higher the water solubility of organophosphorus insecticides, the lower their toxicity to fish.

Impact of continuous Triazophos exposure on Labeo rohita: Physiological, biochemical, and histological alterations and IBRv2 index assessment

Pesticides are commonly used in agriculture and aquaculture. Triazophos, an organophosphate-based pesticide, is widely used in agriculture to control many insect pests. Due to its high photochemical stability and mode of action, Triazophos could persist in the aquatic ecosystem and cause toxic effects on non-target organisms. We have studied the potential toxic effects of Triazophos on L. rohita. Primarily, we determined the median lethal concentration (LC50) of Triazophos for 24 and 96 h. Next, we studied acute (96 h, LC50-96 h) toxicity. Then, we studied chronic (35 days, 1/10th LC50-24 h Treatment I: 0.609 mg/L, 1/5th LC50-96 h Treatment II: 1.044 mg/L) toxicity. We analyzed blood biomarkers such as hematology (Hb, Hct, RBC, WBC, MCV, MCH and MCHC), prolactin, cortisol, glucose and protein levels. Concurrently, we analyzed tissue biomarkers such as glycogen, GOT, GPT, LDH and histopathology. IBRv2 index assessment method was also to evaluate the Triazophos toxicity. Studied hematological, hormonal, biochemical and enzymological biomarkers were affected in Triazophos treated groups when compare to the control group. The changes in these biomarkers were statistically significant at the 0.05 alpha level. Triazophos exposed fish shown a severe degenerated primary and secondary lamellae, lamellar fusion, hypertrophy and telangiectasia in the gills. In the hepatic tissue, it caused moderate necrosis, blood congestion, distended sinusoids with minor vacuolation, prominent pyknotic nuclei, hypertrophy, cloudy swelling of cells, lipid accumulation and fibrotic lesions. In the renal tissue, Triazophos caused thickening of Bowman's capsule, hyaline droplets degeneration, irregular renal corpuscle, congestion, cellular swelling, degeneration of tubular epithelium, necrosis, shrunken glomerulus, vacuolated glomerulus, hypertrophy, exudate and edema. IBRv2 analysis suggested that tissue biomarkers are highly sensitive to Triazophos toxicity and prolonged exposure could cause serious health effects like acute toxicity in fish. Triazophos could cause multiorgan toxicity at studied concentrations.

Mechanisms of oxidative response during biodegradation of malathion by S. oneidensis MR-1

Malathion, an extensively used organophosphorus pesticide, poses a high potential risk of toxicity to humans and the environment. Shewanella (S.) oneidensis MR-1 has been proposed as a strain with excellent bioremediation capabilities, capable of efficiently removing a wide range of hard-to-degrade pollutants. However, the physiological and biochemical response of S. oneidensis MR-1 to malathion is unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to examine how S. oneidensis MR-1 responds physiologically and biochemically to malathion while also investigating the biodegradation properties of the pesticide. The results showed that the 7-day degradation rates of S. oneidensis MR-1 were 84.1, 91.6, and 94.0% at malathion concentrations of 10, 20, and 30 mg/L, respectively. As the concentration of malathion increased, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities were inhibited, leading to a significant rise in malondialdehyde content. This outcome can be attributed to the excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) triggered by malathion stress. In addition, ROS production stimulates the secretion of soluble polysaccharides, which alleviates oxidative stress caused by malathion. Malathion-induced oxidative damage further exacerbated the changes in the cellular properties of S. oneidensis MR-1. During the initial stages of degradation, the cell density and total intracellular protein increased significantly with increasing malathion exposure. This can be attributed to the remarkable resistance of S. oneidensis MR-1 to malathion. Based on scanning electron microscopy observations, continuous exposure to contaminants led to a reduction in biomass and protein content, resulting in reduced cell activity and ultimately leading to cell rupture. In addition, this was accompanied by a decrease in Na+/K+- ATPase and Ca2+/Mg2+-ATPase levels, suggesting that malathion-mediated oxidative stress interfered with energy metabolism in S. oneidensis MR-1. The findings of this study provide new insights into the environmental risks associated with organophosphorus pesticides, specifically malathion, and their potential for bioremediation.

The oral protective efficacy of magnolol against Aeromonas hydrophila and A. veronii infection via enhancing anti-inflammatory ability in goldfish (Carassius auratus)

Aeromonas hydrophila and A. veronii are widespread and important critical pathogenic bacteria in the aquaculture industry and cause severe economic damage. At present, magnolol has been proved to be a broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, such as A. hydrophila, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus mutans. In order to explore the cause of in vivo disease resistance of magnolol and promote its safe application in aquaculture, the pathological detection and changes in immune indicators of fish after feeding with magnolol were conducted in this paper. Results showed that the diets supplemented with magnolol (3 g magnolol/kg commercial feed) significantly increase the expression level of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10, TGF-β and IL-4) in the liver of goldfish (p < .05). Additionally, the expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-8 and IFN-γ) did not increase significantly. Subsequently, this study investigated the resistance of goldfish to A. hydrophila and A. veronii infection after feeding with magnolol. The results showed that the survival rates of treatment groups fed 3 g magnolol/kg commercial feed daily increased by 23.1% and 38.5% after 10 days post A. hydrophila and A. veronii (p = .0351) infection, respectively. Meanwhile, growth performance (body weight and length), major internal organs (liver, spleen, kidney and intestine) and the serum biochemistry indicators (ATL and AST) all exhibited no significant adverse effects after the goldfish fed with magnolol for 30 days. TP showed an increasing concentration in the treatment group (p < .05). Results of the mRNA expression of stress response indicated that the expression level of cyp1a and hsp70 was significantly down-regulated after a 30-day treatment (p < .05), and the two genes recovered to the similar level as the control group after a commercial feed diet. In brief, the diets supplemented with magnolol protected the host from the excessive immune response caused by A. hydrophila and A. veronii via enhancing its anti-inflammatory capacity and had no adverse effects with feeding.

Sex-specific metabolic dysregulation in digestive glands of green mussels following exposure to triazophos

As a ubiquitous environmental pollutant in China, triazophos (TP) is known to have neurotoxicity, oxidative stress, and reproductive toxicity to mussels. To investigate the molecular mechanisms of TP toxicity, metabolic changes in the digestive glands of Perna viridis in different sexes were examined after treated with 35 μg/L TP. Notably, 158 significant different metabolites (SDMs) were detected in TP-treated mussels and more than half of the SDMs were lipids and lipid-like molecules, which suggested that TP disturbed the lipid metabolism of P. viridis. In addition, metabolites associated with neurotoxicity and reproductive disturbance were also detected in female and male mussels. Moreover, a larger number of SDMs were found in male mussels (120 SDMs) than females (99 SDMs), and 60 common metabolites exhibited consistent variation tendency and similar magnitude in both sexes. The metabolic alternations in female and male mussels displayed similar protective mechanisms and also sex-specific responses, male mussels were more sensitive to TP exposure. This research provided new data about the molecular mechanisms of TP toxicity and the gender specific changes in mussels after treated by chemicals.

Transcriptome analysis reveals sex-specific alterations in gonads of green mussel exposed to organophosphorus insecticide triazophos

Triazophos (TP) is a widespread pollutant in aquatic environments. A sex-specific metabolic response in green-lipped mussel Perna viridis to TP exposure was observed in our previous study, and this led us to investigate the mechanisms associated with its toxicity. P. viridis were subjected to chronic exposure (15 days) to TP at 35 μg/L to compare the sex-biased transcriptomic profiles in the gonads of male and female mussels. We identified 632 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) (348 up-regulated and 284 down-regulated) in TP-exposed males, and only 61 DEGs (9 up-regulated and 52 down-regulated) in TP-exposed females. Many DEGs were found to be involved in the nervous, reproductive endocrine, oxidative stress, and immune systems of P. viridis. Additionally, enzymatic activity analysis indicated TP induced neurotoxic effects and oxidative damage to the mussels. Our results demonstrate that the stress response and molecular mechanisms of TP toxicology are different between female and male mussels.

Chronic Effects of Diazinon® Exposures Using Integrated Biomarker Responses in Freshwater Walking Catfish, Clarias batrachus

Diazinon exposures have been linked to the onset of toxic pathways and adverse outcomes in aquatic species, but the ecological implications on model species are not widely emphasized. The objective of this study was to determine how the organophosphate pesticide diazinon affected hematological (hemoglobin, total red blood count, total white blood count, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin), growth (condition factor, hepatosomatic index, specific growth rate), biochemical (total serum glucose, total serum protein), and endocrine (growth hormone, tri-iodothyronine, and thyroxine) parameters in Clarias batrachus after chronic exposure. Diazinon was administered at predefined exposure doses (0.64 and 1.28 mg/L) and monitored at 15, 30, and 45 days into the investigation. Observation for most biomarkers revealed patterns of decreasing values with increasing toxicant concentration and exposure duration. Correlation analysis highlighted a significant inverse relationship between variables (mean corpuscular hemoglobin, condition factor, specific growth rate, tri-iodothyronine, thyroxine, and total serum protein) and elevated chronic diazinon exposure concentrations. The integrated indices (IBR and BRI) indexes were used to provide visual and understandable depictions of toxicity effects and emphasized the relativity of biomarkers in terms of sensitivity and magnitude or severity of responses under graded toxicant exposures. The significant damage reflected by evaluated parameters in diazinon exposure groups compared to control portends risks to the health of local fish populations, including Clarias batrachus in aquatic systems adjacent to agrarian landscapes.

Evaluation of triazophos induced immunotoxicity of spleen and head kidney in fresh water teleost, Channa punctata

The utilization of pesticides has increased for destroying pests and protecting crops in the agriculture field. Triazophos is a commonly used organophosphorous insecticide that causes alterations in haematological and histological parameters in fish. The present study was designed to evaluate the effect of triazophos induced innate and cell mediated immunotoxicity in freshwater teleost, Channa punctata. Fishes were exposed to triazophos at concentrations 5 and 10% of LC₅₀ value for 10 and 20 days. Splenic and head kidney macrophage phagocytosis, nitric oxide production and superoxide production were assayed to evaluate the innate immunity. Cell-mediated immunity was measured through splenic and head kidney lymphocyte proliferation in presence of T and B cell mitogens. Results of the present study revealed that macrophage phagocytosis was significantly reduced after in vivo triazophos treatment. Differential suppressive effect of triazophos was also observed where mitogen induced splenic and head kidney lymphocyte proliferations were reduced after 10 and 20 days treatment. Concentration dependent effect of triazophos was observed in in vivo studies where the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates were suppressed. This study describes the first investigation of the effect of triazophos on immune functions and will help to determine appropriate ecotoxicity and immunotoxicity in freshwater teleosts.

Analysis of suppressive effects of pesticide triazophos on leucocyte immune responses in a teleost, Channa Punctatus

Triazophos is a commonly used organophosphate insecticide, which inhibits the acetylcholinesterase enzyme and causes paralysis and death of insects. Impact of the pesticides on immunity has scarcely been investigated, especially in fishes. The present study was designed to analyze the immunotoxic role of in vitro triazophos exposure to the leucocytes in freshwater teleost, Channa punctatus. Triazophos, at in vitro concentrations of 0.1, 0.5, and 1 µg ml^-1, was used to study leucocyte phagocytosis, superoxide production, nitrite release, and lymphocyte proliferation. Dose-dependent suppression of various immune responses was observed. Nitrite release and superoxide production by leucocytes were reduced in cultures incubated with triazophos. Mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation was significantly reduced at 0.5 and 1 µg ml^-1 but not at 0.1 µg ml^-1 concentration of pesticide. The biphasic suppressive effect was also discovered while evaluating phagocytic response. These investigations describe the effects of pesticide on immune responses in C. punctatus, which are helpful in understanding the immunotoxicity in fish. Substantially more researches are required to help design the measures to combat ecotoxicity in freshwater bodies.

Metabolomic Profiles in the Brains of Juvenile Steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Following Bifenthrin Treatment

The pyrethroid insecticide, bifenthrin, is frequently measured at concentrations exceeding those that induce acute and chronic toxicity to several invertebrate and fish species residing in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta of California. Since the brain is considered to be a significant target for bifenthrin toxicity, juvenile steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were treated with concentrations of bifenthrin found prior to (60 ng/L) and following (120 ng/L) major stormwater runoff events with nontargeted metabolomics used to target transcriptomic alterations in steelhead brains following exposure. Predicted responses were involved in cellular apoptosis and necrosis in steelhead treated with 60 ng/L bifenthrin using the software Ingenuity Pathway Analysis. These responses were predominately driven by decreased levels of acetyl-l-carnitine (ALC), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and adenine. Steelhead treated with 120 ng/L bifenthrin had reductions of lysophosphatidylcholines (LPC), lysophosphatidylethanolamines (LPE), and increased levels of betaine, which were predicted to induce an inflammatory response. Several genes predicted to be involved in apoptotic (caspase3 and nrf2) and inflammatory (miox) pathways had altered expression following exposure to bifenthrin. There was a significantly increased expression of caspase3 and miox in fish treated with 120 ng/L bifenthrin with a significant reduction of nrf2 in fish treated with 60 ng/L bifenthrin. These data indicate that bifenthrin may have multiple targets within the brain that affect general neuron viability, function, and signaling potentially through alterations in signaling fatty acids.

Comparative Acute Toxicity Assessment of Organophosphate and Avermectin Insecticides on a Freshwater Fish Oreochromis niloticus

Oreochromis niloticus was exposed to 10.0 ppb of organophosphate insecticide chlorpyrifos (CPF) and avermectin insecticides abamectin (ABM) and emamectin benzoate (EB) for 48 and 96 h. RBC and Hb decreased in CPF- and ABM-exposed fish after 96-h. Plasma ALT, AST, cortisol, and glucose increased in 96-h CPF-, ABM- and EB-exposed fish, while plasma ions declined in 96-h CPF-exposed ones. Insecticides caused alterations in liver oxidative stress parameters. In fish exposed to CPF, CAT increased after 48-h whereas it decreased after 96-h. Also, CAT declined in 48- and 96-h ABM-exposed fish, whereas it elevated in 48-h EB-exposed ones. Insecticides caused decreases in SOD at 48- and 96-h and in GR after 96-h. GSH elevated in CPF-exposed fish after 48-h, while it decreased in all the tested insecticide exposures after 96-h. Malondialdehyde of fish exposed to insecticides for 96-h increased. Consequently, toxic effects of insecticides on O. niloticus were generally as CPF > ABM > EB.

Operating at the extreme: estimating the upper yield boundary of winter wheat production in commercial practice

Wheat farming provides 28.5% of global cereal production. After steady growth in average crop yield from 1950 to 1990, wheat yields have generally stagnated, which prompts the question of whether further improvements are possible. Statistical studies of agronomic parameters such as crop yield have so far exclusively focused on estimating parameters describing the whole of the data, rather than the highest yields specifically. These indicators include the mean or median yield of a crop, or finding the combinations of agronomic traits that are correlated with increasing average yields. In this paper, we take an alternative approach and consider high yields only. We carry out an extreme value analysis of winter wheat yield data collected in England and Wales between 2006 and 2015. This analysis suggests that, under current climate and growing conditions, there is indeed a finite upper bound for winter wheat yield, whose value we estimate to be 17.60 tonnes per hectare. We then refine the analysis for strata defined by either location or level of use of agricultural inputs. We find that there is no statistical evidence for variation of maximal yield depending on location, and neither is there statistical evidence that maximum yield levels are improved by high levels of crop protection and fertilizer use.

The effect of a glyphosate-based herbicide on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, oxidative stress, and antioxidant status in freshwater amphipod: Gammarus pulex (Crustacean)

This study had determined the effect of glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH) on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzyme activity, oxidative stress, and antioxidant status in Gammarus pulex. Firstly, the 96-h LC50 value of glyphosate on G. pulex was determined and calculated as 403 μg/L. Subsequently, the organisms were exposed to sub-lethal concentrations (10, 20, and 40 μg/L) of the determined GHB for 24 and 96 h. The samples were taken from control and GBH-treated groups at 24 and 96 h of study and analysed to determine the malondialdehyde (MDA) and reduced glutathione (GSH) levels, the AChE, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) enzyme activities. In the G. pulex exposed to GBH for 24 and 96 h, the MDA level increased significantly (p < 0.05). The GSH level, the AChE, the CAT, and the GPx activities decreased compared with the control group (p < 0.05). G. pulex exposure to GBH for 24 h showed a temporary reduction in the SOD. GBH exposure led to oxidative stress in the G. pulex as well as affected the cholinergic system of the organism. These results indicated that the parameters measured may be important indicators of herbicide contamination in G. pulex.

Effect of acute exposure of triazophos on histological structure and apoptosis of the brain and liver of zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Triazophos (TAP) has become a part of widespread pollutant of the aquatic environment due to its residue. Current study was designed to investigate the toxic effect of TAP at different doses (0.06, 0.3 and 1.5 mg/L) to the model organism of zebrafish (Danio rerio) by using multi-endpoint analysis in a 96 h acute exposure test. The direct observation that histological and ultrastructural alteration of zebrafish brain and liver were carried out via paraffin section in hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), respectively. In addition, a series of methods were applied for exploring the physiological parameters related to cellular apoptosis. Results indicated that vacuolar structure after 96 h treatment with TAP were appeared in the molecular and granular layers of cerebellum. A large number of nuclear retraction, tissues vacuolation and cytoplasmic loss were observed in liver at histological level. From the fine structural level, the mitochondrial vacuolation and membrane damage of brain cells were found and the cristae of mitochondria disintegrated partly in hepatocytes. Onset of such histological structure alterations were one of the most intuitive reflection to TAP exposure, which needs to analyze biochemical alterations for further study. The mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) showed a downward trend in the brain and liver of zebrafish. Simultaneously, the activity of caspase-3 and caspase-9 increased after 96 h exposure with a concentration-dependent manner, which could be served as a suitable indicator of cellular apoptosis. Furthermore, apoptosis-related genes (Apaf-1, p53, Bax, Bcl-2, caspase-3 and caspase-9) transcription showed different alterations in response to the TAP treatment. These results indicated that TAP exposure led to apoptosis in zebrafish brain and liver and it was speculated that the apoptosis may occur through mitochondrial pathway. The present study demonstrated that the exposure of zebrafish to the insecticide TAP led to observe its effects at both histological structure and apoptosis level in liver and brain.

A Novel CdSe/ZnS Quantum Dots Fluorescence Assay Based on Molecularly Imprinted Sensitive Membranes for Determination of Triazophos Residues in Cabbage and Apple

In the present study we have developed a direct competitive CdSe/ZnS quantum dot (QD) fluorescence assay based on micro-array-imprinted membranes for the determination of triazophos in cabbage and apple. The imprinted membranes were directly synthesized on the surface of a 96-well plate by thermal polymerization using triadimefon as the dummy template. Under optimal conditions, the assay showed an excellent linear response over the concentration ranges of 0.1-10,000 μg L-1 with a good coefficient of determination (R 2= 0.982). The sensitivity (IC50) and limit of detection (LOD, expressed as IC15) of the developed assay were 3.63 mg L-1 and 0.31 μg L-1, respectively. The applicability of the developed approach was tested for detecting triazophos in incurred samples. The method showed excellent recoveries (109.6-118.9%) and relative standard deviations (RSDs) between 9.9 and 19.5%. The obtained results correlated well with those obtained by LC-MS/MS (R 2= 0.9995). The competitive assay using CdSe/ZnS QDs as fluorescence-labeled probe showed good sensitivity, steady and fast response, and excellent anti-interference ability compared to conventional fluorescence-quenching methods. Finally, the feasibility of the proposed methodology was successfully applied for detection of triazophos in real samples.

Responses of Antioxidant Defense and Immune Gene Expression in Early Life Stages of Large Yellow Croaker (Pseudosciaena crocea) Under Methyl Mercury Exposure

Early life stages of marine organisms are the most sensitive stages to environment stressors including pollutants. In order to understand the toxicological effects induced by MeHg exposure on juveniles of large yellow croaker (Pseudosciaena crocea), a toxicity test was performed wherein fish were exposed to sub-lethal concentrations of MeHg under laboratory conditions (18 ± 1°C; 26 ± 1 in salinity). After 30 days of 0–4.0 μg L^-1 MeHg exposure, SOD activity was significantly decreased in the 0.25, 1.0, and 4.0 μg L^-1 treatments; while CAT activity was significantly increased in the 4.0 μg L^-1 treatments; GSH level, GPx activity were significantly elevated in the 4.0 μg L^-1 treatments, respectively. Meanwhile, malondialdehyde content was also significantly increased in the 1.0 and 4.0 μg L^-1 treatments with respect to the control. Acetylcholinesterase activity was significantly decreased by 18.3, 25.2, and 21.7% in the 0.25, 1.0, and 4.0 μg L^-1 treatments, respectively. The expression of TCTP, GST3, Hsp70, Hsp27 mRNA were all up-regulated in juveniles with a dose-dependent manner exposed to MeHg. These results suggest that large yellow croaker juveniles have the potential to regulate the levels of antioxidant enzymes and initiate immune response in order to protect fish to some extent from oxidative stress induced by MeHg.

Triazophos-induced toxicity in zebrafish: miRNA-217 inhibits nup43

Triazophos is a highly toxic organophosphorus pesticide, causing acute toxicity to brain tissue, and neurotoxicity and embryotoxicity to animals. Therefore, triazophos is considered as a public health problem due to its acute hazard index. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), a class of endogenous noncoding RNAs, can regulate the expression of target gene(s) by mediating mRNA cleavage or translational repression in organisms exposed to environmental chemicals. We found that nup43 is targeted by miR-217, which was significantly regulated in adult zebrafish (Danio rerio) exposed to triazophos (phenyl-1,2,4-triazolyl-3-(o,o-diethyl thionophosphate)). The expression of nup43 in both mRNA and protein levels was downregulated in a dose-dependent manner upon stimulation with triazophos. A dual luciferase reporter assay demonstrated that miR-217 interacted with the 3'-untranslated regions (3'-UTR) of nup43. The expression of nup43 in both mRNA and protein level was reduced in ZF4 cells when transfected with an miR-217 mimic, but increased when transfected with an miR-217 inhibitor. As a result, nup43 is targeted by miR-217 upon triazophos exposure. We suggest that miR-217 could be a potential toxicological biomarker for triazophos.

Joint toxic effects of triazophos and imidacloprid on zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Pesticide contamination is more often found as a mixture of different pesticides in water bodies rather than individual compounds. However, regulatory risk evaluation is mostly based on the effects of individual pesticides. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the individual and joint toxicities of triazophos (TRI) and imidacloprid (IMI) to the zebrafish (Danio rerio) using acute indices and various sublethal endpoints. Results from 96-h semi-static test indicated that the LC₅₀ values of TRI to D. rerio at multiple life stages (embryonic, larval, juvenile and adult stages) ranged from 0.49 (0.36-0.71) to 4.99 (2.06-6.81) mg a.i. L^-1, which were higher than those of IMI ranging from 26.39 (19.04-38.01) to 128.9 (68.47-173.6) mg a.i. L^-1. Pesticide mixtures of TRI and IMI displayed synergistic response to zebrafish embryos. Activities of carboxylesterase (CarE) and catalase (CAT) were significantly changed in most of the individual and joint exposures of pesticides compared with the control group. The expressions of 26 genes related to oxidative stress, cellular apoptosis, immune system, hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis at the mRNA level revealed that zebrafish embryos were affected by the individual or joint pesticides, and greater changes in the expressions of six genes (Mn-sod, CXCL-CIC, Dio1, Dio2, tsh and vtg1) were observed when exposed to joint pesticides compared with their individual pesticides. Taken together, the synergistic effects indicated that it was highly important to incorporate joint toxicity studies, especially at low concentrations, when assessing the risk of pesticides.

A non-competitive surface plasmon resonance immunosensor for rapid detection of triazophos residue in environmental and agricultural samples

The wide application of an organophosphate pesticide triazophos raises concern on the environmental pollution and the potential risk to human health. Thus, it is crucial to regularly monitor triazophos residue in the environment and agro-products. Herein we described a non-competitive immunoassay for trace detection of triazophos using a direct surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensor. Two anti-triazophos monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) were immobilized on the sensor chip and characterized by SPR-based kinetic analysis. The mAb with relatively slow dissociation rate was used for direct immunosensing of triazophos. The biosensor assay showed a high specificity and a low detection limit of 0.096ngmL^-1 to triazophos, with the linear detection range of 0.98-8.29ngmL^-1. Under the optimal condition, the sensor chip could be regenerated for 160cycles at least. Moreover, the sensitive method was applied to determine triazophos in the spiked environmental water and agricultural products, as well as in unknown real-life samples (including Chinese cabbage, cucumber, and apple). Desirable results demonstrated that the newly-developed immunosensor could be used as a rapid, convenient, and reliable tool to regularly monitor triazophos and meet the detection requirement of its maximum residue limits.

Triazophos (TAP) removal in horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands (HSCWs) and its accumulation in plants and substrates

Triazophos (TAP) is a widely used phosphorus pesticide in China that possesses a potential risk for water pollution. We have studied the removal efficiency of TAP using pilot-scale horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands (HSCWs) as well as the contribution of plants, substrates and other pathways to its removal. For TAP concentrations of 0.12 ± 0.04 mg L⁻¹, 0.79 ± 0.29 mg L⁻¹ and 3.96 ± 1.17 mg L⁻¹, the removal efficiencies were 94.2 ± 3.7%, 97.8 ± 2.9% and 84.0 ± 13.5%, respectively, at a hydraulic loading rate (HLR) of 100 mm d⁻¹; at an HLR of 200 mm d⁻¹, the removal efficiencies were 96.7 ± 1.3%, 96.2 ± 1.7% and 61.7 ± 11.1%, respectively. The isopleth maps of TAP along the direction of flow indicate that most of the TAP removal occurred in the front and middle regions, while the major removal region would move forward with increasing influent TAP. Plant and substrate accumulation accounted for 0.035 ± 0.034% and 4.33 ± 0.43% of the total removal, respectively, indicating that over 95% of the TAP removal was achieved through other mechanisms. Thus, these results suggest HSCWs can be an effective approach with which to treat TAP contaminated water. Furthermore, the longitudinal scale and hydraulic conditions, as well as the roles of plants, substrates and microbes and their interactions, should be further considered in the design and application of CWs for pesticide pollution control.

Single and cartel effect of pesticides on biochemical and haematological status of Clarias batrachus: A long-term monitoring

Pesticide mixtures are common in the streams of agricultural or urban catchments. Individual and cartel toxicity of four different pesticides, namely Endosulfan, Carbofuran, Methyl parathion and Cypermethrin were studied. Sub acute exposure (1/10th of LC50) for 1, 7, 15, 30 and 60 days in Clarias batrachus active tissues such as brain, gills, blood and liver were evaluated. Growth, hepatosomatic index and survival performance were decreased, inhibition of brain acetylcholinesterase, gills Na(+)/K(+) ATPase activities, and abnormal behavior are noticed. The characteristics of the blood respiratory burst activity, erythrocyte count, contents of hematocrit and hemoglobin are dwindled. Plasma total proteins and liver glycogen decreased whereas blood glucose and serum creatinine, triglycerides are elevated. The immunological attributes such as white blood cell count was elevated, whereas albumin, globulins and lysozyme activity significantly decreased. Hepatic superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione S-transferase activities and lipid peroxidation levels are elevated, whereas glutathione peroxidase and glutathione are reduced. Toxicity effect of pesticides reached to a crest on 30th day and showed a descent thereafter except in endosulfan which mounted its detrimental effect throughout the experimental period. Toxicity trends of the present study are determined to be highest in Mix group followed by cypermethrin, methyl parathion and carbofuran. Indiscriminate application of these chemicals pose a toxic threat to non-target organisms, damage the ecosystems and jeopardizes human health.