Toxicological responses on cytochrome P450 and metabolic transferases in liver of goldfish (Carassius auratus) exposed to lead and paraquat

Risk Assessment of Fenpropathrin: Cause Hepatotoxicity and Nephrotoxicity in Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.)

The synthetic pyrethroid pesticide fenpropathrin (FEN) is extensively used worldwide and has frequently been detected in biota and the environment, whilst the negative effects and toxicological mechanisms of FEN on non-target organisms are still unknown. In the present study, healthy immature common carp were treated with FEN (0.45 and 1.35 μg/L) for a duration of 14 days, and the negative impacts and possible mechanisms of FEN on fish were investigated. Biochemical analyses results showed that FEN exposure altered the levels of glucose (GLU), total cholesterol (T-CHO), triglyceride (TG), albumin (ALB), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine transaminase (ALT), and aspartate transaminase (AST) in carp serum, and caused histological injury of the liver and kidney, indicating that FEN may cause hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity in carp. In addition, FEN also altered the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) in carp serum, upregulated the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and elevated the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) in the liver and kidney. Meanwhile, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) levels were also upregulated, indicating that oxidative stress and inflammatory reaction may be involved in the hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity caused by FEN. Furthermore, RNA-seq analysis results revealed that FEN treatment induced a diverse array of transcriptional changes in the liver and kidney and downregulated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were concentrated in multiple pathways, especially cell cycle and DNA replication, suggesting that FEN may induce cell cycle arrest of hepatocytes and renal cells, subsequently inducing hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Overall, the present study enhances our comprehension of the toxic effects of FEN and provides empirical evidence to support the risk assessment of FEN for non-target organisms.

Derivation of water quality criteria for paraquat, bisphenol A and carbamazepine using quantitative structure-activity relationship and species sensitivity distribution (QSAR-SSD)

The risk assessment of an expanding array of emerging contaminants in aquatic ecosystems and the establishment of water quality criteria rely on species sensitivity distribution (SSD), necessitating ample multi-trophic toxicity data. Computational methods, such as quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR), enable the prediction of specific toxicity data, thus mitigating the need for costly experimental testing and exposure risk assessment. In this study, robust QSAR models for four aquatic species (Rana pipiens, Crassostrea virginica, Asellus aquaticus, and Lepomis macrochirus) were developed using leave-one-out (LOO) screening variables and the partial least squares algorithm to predict toxicity data for paraquat, bisphenol A, and carbamazepine. These predicted data can be integrated with experimental data to construct SSD models and derive hazardous concentration for 5 % of species (HC5) for the criterion maximum concentration. The chronic water quality criterion for paraquat, bisphenol A, and carbamazepine were determined at 6.7, 11.1, and 3.5 μg/L, respectively. The QSAR-SSD approach presents a viable and cost-effective method for deriving water quality criteria for other emerging contaminants.

Multi-omics reveal disturbance of glucose homeostasis in pregnant rats exposed to short-chain perfluorobutanesulfonic acid

Perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS), a short-chain alternative to perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), is widely used in various products and is increasingly present in environmental media and human bodies. Recent epidemiological findings have raised concerns about its potential adverse health effects, although the specific toxic mechanism remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the metabolic toxicity of gestational PFBS exposure in maternal rats. Pregnant Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were randomly assigned to three groups and administered either 3% starch gel (control), 5, or 50 mg/kg bw·d PFBS. Oral glucose tolerance tests (OGTT) and lipid profiles were measured, and integrated omics analysis (transcriptomics and non-targeted metabolomics) was employed to identify changes in genes and metabolites and their relationships with metabolic phenotypes. The results revealed that rats exposed to 50 mg/kg bw·d PFBS exhibited a significant decrease in 1-h glucose levels and the area under the curve (AUC) of OGTT compared with the starch group. Transcriptomics analysis indicated significant alterations in gene expression related to cytochrome P450 exogenous metabolism, glutathione metabolism, bile acid secretion, tumor pathways, and retinol metabolism. Differentially expressed metabolites (DEMs) were enriched in pathways such as pyruvate metabolism, the glucagon signaling pathway, central carbon metabolism in cancer, and the citric acid cycle. Co-enrichment analysis and pairwise correlation analysis among genes, metabolites, and outcomes identified several differentially expressed genes (DEGs), including Gstm1, Kit, Adcy1, Gck, Ppp1r3c, Ppp1r3d, and DEMs such as fumaric acid, L-lactic acid, 4-hydroxynonenal, and acetylvalerenolic acid. These DEGs and DEMs may play a role in the modulation of glucolipid metabolic pathways. In conclusion, our results suggest that gestational exposure to PFBS may induce molecular perturbations in glucose homeostasis. These findings provide insights into the potential mechanisms contributing to the heightened risk of abnormal glucose tolerance associated with PFBS exposure.

LncRNA NR_030777 promotes mitophagy by targeting CDK1-related mitochondrial fission and ATG12 to attenuate paraquat-induced Parkinson's disease

With the evidence emerging that abnormal expression of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are involved in onset of Parkinson's disease (PD), the role of NR_030777 contributing to this disease is of great interest. We recently found that a novel lncRNA "NR_030777" demonstrates protective effects on PQ-induced neurodegeneration. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of NR_030777 in the regulation of mitochondrial fission and mitophagy involved in PQ-induced neuronal damage remain to be explored. NR_030777 brain conditional overexpressing mice as well as in vitro primary neuronal cells from cerebral cortex and Neuro2a cells were adopted. Immunofluorescence, Immunohistochemistry, qRT-PCR and Western blotting were used to evaluate the expression levels of RNA and proteins. RNA immunoprecipitation and RNA pulldown experiment were used to evaluate the interaction of NR_030777 with its target proteins. NR_030777 and mitophagy were increased, and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) levels recovered after NR_030777 overexpression upon PQ treatment. The overexpression and knockdown of NR_030777 unveiled that NR_030777 positively regulated mitophagy such as the upregulation of LC3B-II:I, ATG12-ATG5, p62 and NBR1. Moreover, the application of mdivi-1, a DRP-1 inhibitor, in combination with NR_030777 genetic modified cells unveiled that NR_030777 promoted DRP1-mediated mitochondrial fission and mitophagy. Furthermore, NR_030777 were directly bound to CDK1 to increase p-DRP1 levels at the Ser616 site, leading to mitochondrial fission and mitophagy. On the other hand, NR_030777 acted directly on ATG12 within the ATG12-ATG5 complex in the 800-1400 nt region to modulate the membrane formation. Accordingly, NR_030777 deficiency in neuron cells compromised cell mitophagy. Finally, the above findings were confirmed using NR_030777-overexpressing mice. NR_030777 exerted a protective effect on PQ-exposed mice by enhancing mitophagy. Our data provide the first scientific evidence for the precise invention of PQ-induced PD. Our findings further propose a breakthrough for understanding the regulatory relationship between NR_030777, CDK1, ATG12 and mitophagy in PQ-induced PD.

Integrated physiological and transcriptome analysis reveals potential toxicity mechanism of haloxyfop-P-methyl to Chiromantes dehaani

Haloxyfop-P-methyl is widely used in controlling gramineous weeds, including the invasive plant Spartina alterniflora. However, the mechanism of its toxicity to crustaceans is unclear. In this study, we adopted transcriptome analysis combined with physiologic changes to investigate the response of estuarine crab (Chiromantes dehaani) to haloxyfop-P-methyl. The results showed that the median lethal concentration (LC₅₀) of C. dehaani to haloxyfop-P-methyl at 96 h was 12.886 mg/L. Antioxidant system analysis indicated that MDA, CAT, GR, T-GSH, and GSSG might be sensitive biomarkers that characterize the oxidative defense response of the crab. In total, 782 differentially expressed genes were identified, including 489 up-regulated and 293 down-regulated genes. Glutathione metabolism, detoxification response and energy metabolism were significantly enriched, revealing the potential toxic mechanism of haloxyfop-P-methyl to C. dehaani. These results provide a theoretical foundation for further research on haloxyfop-P-methyl toxicity to crustaceans.

Glyphosate metabolism in Tetrahymena thermophila: A shotgun proteomic analysis approach

Glyphosate is one of the most widely used herbicides in the world. However, because of its overuse and resistance to degradation, high levels of glyphosate residues in the environment are reported. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of glyphosate on proteomic aspects of Tetrahymena thermophila and their uses as bioindicators of freshwater ecosystem. First, an acute toxicity test was performed to determine the median inhibition concentration (IC₅₀ ). The toxicity test results showed that glyphosate inhibited the growth (proliferation) of T. thermophila. The 96 h-IC₅₀ value of glyphosate was 171 mg L^-1 . No visible changes in aggregation behavior and cell morphology were observed under glyphosate exposure. In addition, the effects of low and high dose glyphosate concentrations (77.5 mg L^-1 , 171 mg L^-1 ) on the proteomic changes of T. thermophila was investigated using a label-free shotgun proteomic approach. A total of 3191 proteins were identified, 2791 proteins were expressed in the control, 2651 proteins were expressed in 77.5 mg L^-1 glyphosates, and 3012 proteins were expressed in 171 mg L^-1 glyphosates. Under glyphosate exposure at both low and high dose glyphosate, 400 unique proteins were upregulated. The majority of these proteins was classified as proteins associated with oxidative stress response and intracellular transport indicating the shifts in the internal metabolism. Proteomics revealed that the glyphosate metabolism by T. thermophila is a multi-step process involving several enzymes, which can be divided into four phases, including modification (phase I), conjugation (phase II), transport (phase III), and degradation (phase IV). The accumulation of various biochemical reactions contributes to overall glyphosate resistance. With the proteomics approach, we have found that T. thermophila was equipped with glyphosate detoxification and degradation mechanisms.

Accidental lead in contaminated pipe-borne water and dietary furan intake perturbs rats' hepatorenal function altering oxidative, inflammatory, and apoptotic balance

Inadvertent exposure to furan and Pb is associated with hepatorenal abnormalities in humans and animals. It is perceived that these two chemical species may work in synergy to orchestrate liver and kidney damage. Against this background, we investigated the combined effect of furan and incremental lead (Pb) exposure on hepatorenal dysfunction. Wistar rats (n = 30; 150 g) were treated for 28 days accordingly: Control; FUR (8 mg/kg), PbAc (100 µg/L), FUR + PbAc₁ (8 mg/kg FUR + 1 µg/L PbAc); FUR + PbAc₁ (8 mg/kg FUR + 10 µg/L PbAc), and FUR + PbAc₁ (8 mg/kg FUR + 100 µg/L PbAc). Biomarkers of hepatorenal function, oxidative stress, inflammation, DNA damage, and apoptosis were examined. Furan and incrementally Pb exposure increased the levels of hepatorenal biomarkers and oxidative and pro-inflammatory mediators, including lipid peroxidation, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, and interleukin-1 beta. Increased DNA damage, caspases- 9 and -3, and atypical histoarchitecture of the hepatorenal tissues exemplified furan and Pb treatment-related perturbations. Furthermore, the levels of antioxidants and IL-10 were also suppressed. Furan and Pb dose-dependently exacerbated hepatorenal derangements by altering the redox and inflammatory rheostats, worsened DNA damage, and related apoptotic onset that may potentiate hepatorenal disorders in humans and animals. The findings validate the synergistic effect of furan and Pb in the pathophysiology of kidney and liver disorders.

Design and synthesis of amphiphilic carboxyl-functionalized magnetic polymer microspheres for fast determination of paraquat and its four metabolites in human urine samples prior to ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry

In cases of low concentration paraquat (PQ) poisoning, as the disease progresses over a long period of time, the prototype PQ may not be detected in the urine, which has a significant negative impact on the precise treatment of the poisoning. But PQ poisoning can also be confirmed by the detection of specific metabolites of PQ in the urine samples. In the present study, core-shell amphiphilic carboxyl-functionalized magnetic polymer microsphere (Amphiphilic-MPs-COOH) was prepared, and the as-prepared Amphiphilic-MPs-COOH was characterized by transmission electron microscope (TEM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and thermogravimetry and differential thermogravimetry analyses (TG-DTG). Then, the Amphiphilic-MPs-COOH was employed as a magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) adsorbent for pretreatment and rapid determination of PQ and its four metabolites from urine samples prior to ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (UPLC-HRMS). The extraction-elution conditions of Amphiphilic-MPs-COOH towards PQ and its metabolites were optimized in spiking urine samples to obtain the best MSPE efficiency. The adsorption mechanism of PQ and its metabolites by Amphiphilic-MPs-COOH involves electrostatic attraction and π-π stacking interactions. Moreover, the effect of different ratios of hydrophilic monomer NVP and functional monomer 4-VBA on the extraction and purification performance of PQ and its metabolites in urine samples. And the results revealed that both hydrophilic monomer and functional monomer were important for the adsorption of PQ and its metabolites, and the addition of the appropriate amount of the hydrophilic monomer NVP can improve the compatibility of the adsorbent with the urine substrate. In addition, this study compared the matrix effect of the Amphiphilic-MPs-COOH based MSPE method and the commercial Waters Oasis WCX SPE method. The results showed that the Amphiphilic-MPs-COOH based MSPE method developed in this paper had better resistance to matrix interference. Under optimal conditions, the recoveries of PQ and its metabolites were ranging from 84.5 to 103%, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) of 1.1-6.3%. While the limits of detection (LODs, S/N ≥ 3) and limits of quantification (LOQs, S/N ≥ 9) of the method were in range of 0.1-1.6 μg/L and 0.3-4.8 μg/L, respectively. Finally, the established MSPE-UPLC-HRMS method in this study was used to confirm PQ poisoning not only based on detecting PQ prototype, but also on its four metabolites, providing strong technical support for clinical precision treatment.

ADME/T-based strategies for paraquat detoxification: Transporters and enzymes

Paraquat (PQ) is a toxic, organic herbicide for which there is no specific antidote. Although banned in some countries, it is still used as an irreplaceable weed killer in others. The lack of understanding of the precise mechanism of its toxicity has hindered the development of treatments for PQ exposure. While toxicity is thought to be related to PQ-induced oxidative stress, antioxidants are limited in their ability to ameliorate the untoward biological responses to this agent. Summarized in this review are data on the absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADME/T) of PQ, focusing on the essential roles of individual transporters and enzymes in these processes. Based on these findings, strategies are proposed to design and test specific and effective antidotes for the clinical management of PQ poisoning.

Dual oxidase-dependent reactive oxygen species are involved in the regulation of UGT overexpression-mediated clothianidin resistance in the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens

BACKGROUND

Uridine diphosphate-glycosyltransferases (UGTs) are phase II metabolic enzymes involved in metabolism of toxins and resistance to insecticides in insect pests. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced by xenobiotics are important for activation of detoxification pathways. However, relationships between ROS and UGTs involved in toxin metabolism and insecticide resistance remain unclear.

RESULTS

Here, involvement of dual oxidase (Duox)-dependent ROS in regulating UGT expression-mediated insecticide resistance in the brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) was investigated. The overexpression of NlUGT386F2 contributed to the resistance of N. lugens to clothianidin. Furthermore, the ROS inhibitor (N-acetylcysteine) significantly reduced the expression of NlUGT386F2 and increased the susceptibility of N. lugens to clothianidin. Silencing the ROS producer Duox significantly increased the susceptibility of N. lugens to clothianidin through the down-regulation of NlUGT386F2 expression.

CONCLUSION

NlDuox-dependent ROS regulates NlUGT386F2 expression-mediated clothianidin resistance in brown planthopper. These observations further our understanding of the metabolism of toxins and of insecticide-resistance in insect pests.

Drp1-mediated mitochondrial fission contributes to mitophagy in paraquat-induced neuronal cell damage

Paraquat (PQ) is one of the most widely used herbicides in the world due to its excellent weed control effects. Accumulating evidence has revealed that long-term exposure to PQ can significantly increase the risk of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the underlying molecular mechanisms are yet to be fully understood. Hence, we investigated the potential role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1) in PQ-induced mitophagy, aiming to elaborate on possible molecular mechanisms involved in PQ-triggered neurotoxicity. Our results showed that ROS were increased, mitochondrial membrane potential was decreased at 100, 200, and 300 μM PQ concentrations, and autophagy pathways were activated at a concentration of 100 μM in neuronal cells. In addition, excessive mitophagy was observed in neurons exposed to 300 μM PQ for 24 h. Then, ROS-mediated mitochondrial fission was found to contribute to PQ-induced excessive mitophagy. Moreover, all aforementioned changes were significantly ameliorated by mdivi-1. Thus, our findings provide a novel neurotoxic mechanism and reveal the DRP1-mitochondrial fission pathway as a potential target for treatments of PQ-induced excessive mitophagy, serving as an alternative target for the prevention and treatment of Parkinson's disease. Because harmful substances are transmitted and enriched in the food chain, the toxic effect of environmental paraquat is nonnegligible, and more investigations are needed.

Exposure to benzo[a]pyrene triggers distinct patterns of microRNA transcriptional profiles in aquatic firefly Aquatica wuhana (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)

Larval aquatic fireflies in fresh water are adversely affected by water pollutants such as benzo(a)pyrene (BaP). However, their response to BaP stress at the microRNA (miRNA)-regulatory level remains unknown. Here, transcriptomes containing 31,872 genes and six miRNA transcriptional profiles were obtained for Aquatica wuhana larvae, and comparative analysis was performed between larvae exposed to BaP (0.01 mg/L) and unexposed controls. Fifteen of 114 miRNAs identified via bioinformatics were detected as differentially expressed (DEMs) upon BaP exposure. Analysis results of predicted target genes of DEM suggests that BaP exposure primarily triggered transcriptional changes of miRNA associated with five major regulatory categories: 1) osmotic balance, 2) energy metabolic efficiency, 3) development, 4) xenobiotic metabolism (oxidative stress), and 5) innate immune response. Based on six innate immune- and xenobiotic metabolism-related pathways enriched by the predicted DEM targets, 11 key BaP-responsive DEMs were further screened to investigate dynamic changes of expression in response to BaP stress at five time points, and also to validate the miRNA sequencing data using quantitative real-time PCR. This study provides valuable information for the protection of firefly resources and supplements the understanding of miRNA regulatory mechanisms in response to water deterioration.

Succinic acid inhibits the activity of cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes

CONTEXT

Succinic acid, extracted from amber, is widely used in cardiovascular therapy.

OBJECTIVE

The effect of succinic acid on the activity of cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes was investigated in this study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effect of succinic acid (100 μM) on the activity of eight isoforms of CYP450 (i.e., 1A2, 3A4, 2A6, 2E1, 2D6, 2C9, 2C19 and 2C8) was investigated compared to the specific inhibitor and blank controls in pooled human liver microsomes in vitro. The inhibition of CYPs was fitted with competitive or non-competitive inhibition models and corresponding parameters were also obtained.

RESULTS

Succinic acid exerted inhibitory effect on the activity of CYP3A4, 2D6, and 2C9 with the IC₅₀ values of 12.82, 14.53, and 19.60 μM, respectively. Succinic acid inhibited the activity of CYP3A4 in a non-competitive manner with the Ki value of 6.18 μM, and inhibited CYP2D6 and 2C9 competitively with Ki values of 7.40 and 9.48 μM, respectively. Furthermore, the inhibition of CYP3A4 was found to be time-dependent with the KI/K_inact value of 6.52/0.051 min^-1·μM^-1.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Succinic acid showed in vitro inhibitory effects on the activity of CYP3A4, 2D6, and 2C9, which indicated the potential drug-drug interactions. Succinic acid should be carefully co-administrated with the drugs metabolized by CYP3A4, 2D6, and 2C9.

Assessment of toxic effects of the antibiotic erythromycin on the marine fish gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.) by a multi-biomarker approach

Erythromycin (ERY) is one of the most common antibiotics used in human and veterinary practices, leading to ubiquitous environmental distribution and possible toxicity to non-target organisms. The purpose of this study was to determine sub-lethal effects of ERY towards the marine fish Sparus aurata (gilthead seabream). S. aurata were acutely (0.3-323 μg/L, 96 h) and chronically (0.7-8.8 μg/L, 28 d) exposed to ERY. Detoxification [7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD), glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), uridine-diphosphate-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT)], oxidative stress [catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GRed)], lipid peroxidation [thiobarbituric acid reactive substances - (TBARS)], genotoxicity [genetic damage index (GDI) and erythrocytic nuclear abnormalities (ENAs)], neurotransmission [acetylcholinesterase (AChE)] and energy metabolism [lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)] biomarkers were evaluated. Results showed that ERY did not promote significant effects in detoxification biomarkers, but induced slight pro-oxidative effects (decrease of GPx activity in the liver after acute exposure and an increase in gills after chronic exposure; and an increase of hepatic GRed activity following chronic exposure). There was a significant decrease in TBARS after chronic exposure, which contradicts a full scenario of oxidative stress. In terms of genotoxicity, both ERY exposures caused only a significant increase of GDI. Neurotransmission and energy metabolism were not also affected by ERY. Although few toxic effects of ERY have been previously documented (involving different metabolic pathways, as tested in this work), these were mainly observed for freshwater species. These findings suggest low vulnerability of S. aurata to ERY at levels close to the ones found in the wild.

Evaluation of the oxidative stress in liver of crucian carp (Carassius auratus) exposed to 3,4,4'-tri-CDE, 2-MeO-3',4,4'-tri-CDE, and 2-HO-3',4,4'-tri-CDE

Polychlorinated diphenyl ethers (PCDEs) are a class of potential persistent organic contaminants, which have been widely detected in aquatic environment. In the present study, the effects of 3,4,4'-tri-CDE and its two possible metabolites (2-MeO-3',4,4'-tri-CDE and 2-HO-3',4,4'-tri-CDE) on oxidative stress biomarkers in liver of Carassius auratus were evaluated. The fish were treated with these three compounds at different doses (0.1, 1, and 10 μg/L) via semi-static water exposure. The liver samples were individually taken at 3, 7, and 21 days for analysis of oxidative stress indicators, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), reduced glutathione (GSH), and malondialdehyde (MDA). Compare to the control group, the hepatic antioxidant enzyme activity and GSH contents showed significant decreases (p < 0.05) at high-dose treatment (10 μg/L) and prolonged exposure time (21 days) in most of the toxicant-treated groups, indicating the occurrence of oxidative stress in fish liver. However, no consistent trend of the variations of antioxidant parameters was observed at low doses (0.1 and 1 μg/L). Meanwhile, the lipid peroxidation was significantly induced with extending exposure time and increasing dose. In addition, the toxicity order of three compounds was discussed using the integrated biomarker response (IBR) index. Notably, 2-HO-3',4,4'-tri-CDE was indicated to cause the most severe hepatic oxidative stress.

Toxicity of erythromycin to Oncorhynchus mykiss at different biochemical levels: detoxification metabolism, energetic balance, and neurological impairment

During the last decades, the presence of antibiotics in different aquatic compartments has raised increasing interest and concern, since these compounds are usually persistent and bioactive pseudo pollutants. Erythromycin (ERY) is a macrolide antibiotic, prescribed for human and veterinary medicines but also used in aquaculture and livestock production. Taking into account the recorded environmental levels of ERY, its toxicity to non-target organisms has become a still poorly studied issue, particularly in fish. In this sense, this study investigated the acute and chronic effects of realistic levels of ERY on Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout), namely, through the quantification of the activity of enzymes involved in different biochemical pathways, such as detoxification (phase I-7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD); phase II-glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), uridine-diphosphate-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs)), neurotransmission (acetylcholinesterase (AChE)), and energy production (lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)). Both types of exposure caused significant increases in EROD activity in liver of O. mykiss; an increase in GST activity in gills after chronic exposure was also observed. UGT branchial activity was significantly depressed, following the long-term exposure. Thus, EROD, GST, and UGT enzymatic forms seem to be involved in the biotransformation of ERY. In terms of neurotransmission and preferential pathway of energy homeostasis, the exposed organisms appear not to have been affected, as there were no significant alterations in terms of AChE and LDH activities, respectively. The here-obtained data suggest that the observed alterations in terms of detoxification enzymes may have prevented the establishment of a set of toxic responses, namely, neurotoxic and metabolic disorders.

The effect of environmental lead exposure on human health and the contribution of inflammatory mechanisms, a review

Lead (Pb) pollution has been considered as a major threat for human health due to induction of inflammatory cascades in various tissues. The aim of present review is to summarize the literature on the effects of lead exposure on respiratory, neurologic, digestive, cardiovascular and urinary disorders and the role of inflammation as an underlying mechanism for these effects. Various databases such as ISI Web of Knowledge, Medline, PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar and Iran Medex, were searched from 1970 to November 2017 to gather the required articles using appropriate keywords such as lead, respiratory disorders, neurologic disorders, digestive disorders, cardiovascular disorders, urinary disorders and inflammation. Disorders of various body systems and the role of inflammation due to lead exposure has been proven by various studies. These studies indicate that lead exposure may cause respiratory, neurologic, digestive, cardiovascular and urinary diseases. The results were also indicated the increased inflammatory cells and mediators due to lead exposure including cytokines and chemokines due to lead exposure which suggested to be the cause various organ disorders.

Joint toxicity on hepatic detoxication enzymes in goldfish (Carassius auratus) exposed to binary mixtures of lead and paraquat

Compared to single exposure, chemical mixtures might induce joint toxicity including additive, synergistic and antagonistic effects on both organisms and environment. Owing to the specific toxicity of oxidative stress and binding to proteins, lead (Pb) is generally recognized a non-essential and threatening heavy metal to animals and human. Paraquat (PQ) is a widely used herbicide in agriculture and can trigger oxidative stress as well as Pb. Little information was available about joint effects of the two chemicals on toxicological responses in organisms, especially in fish. In our present study, goldfish (Carassius auratus) were randomly exposed to single and combined experiments with different concentrations of Pb and PQ for 28 days. Activities of four enzyme biomarkers in liver, ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD), 7-benzyloxy-4-trifluoromethyl-coumarin-O-debenzyloxylase (BFCOD), glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) were evaluated in each experimental group on day 14 and 28. The results showed four enzyme levels were markedly reduced with the increase of concentrations in mixtures and prolonged exposure. The inhibitory EROD and BFCOD activities were not significantly changed in goldfish following PQ-treated groups with or without 0.5 mg/L Pb, which indicated PQ has more inhibitory toxicity on CYP450 enzymes than Pb in co-exposure groups. However, the reduced values of GST were observed only in the combinations containing high doses of Pb or PQ during experimental periods. Although the responses of UGT activity were similar to GST on 14th day, all combinations of Pb and PQ generated stronger inhibitions on UGT activities compared to individual Pb and PQ-treated group. These results suggested that combined exposure of Pb and PQ have more inhibitory toxicity on phase I enzymes than phase II enzymes.