Associations between parenting behavior and executive function among preschool-aged children born very preterm

A Preliminary Study of Executive Functioning in Preterm-Born Children: A Bilingual Advantage

BACKGROUND

Preterm-born children are at increased risk for deficits in executive function (EF). EF is a set of cognitive processes including inhibition, attention, memory, and decision-making, among others. Bilingualism, operationalized as productive capacity in 2 languages (ie, English and Spanish), may enhance EF in children born preterm and in term-born children.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of bilingualism on executive functioning in bilingual and monolingual preterm and term-born children using a robust measure of bilingualism.

METHODS

This study examined the impact of bilingualism on EF in 17 monolingual or bilingual preterm-born children, aged 6 to 7. The preterm-born sample was also compared with a normed, term-born sample of 38 monolingual, typically developing 6- to 7-year-olds.

RESULTS

On the Creature Counting task of EF, bilingual preterm-born children performed with more accuracy and total switches than monolingual preterm-born children. There was no difference in accuracy between the term-born and entire preterm-born samples. The bilingual, preterm-born children performed more accurately than the term-born sample.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND RESEARCH

This preliminarily suggests bilingualism confers an advantage to preterm-born children's EF. Further research is needed on bilingual advantage of preterm-born children.

Socioeconomic disadvantage and parental mood/affective problems links negative parenting and executive dysfunction in children born very preterm

Poverty increases the risk of poorer executive function (EF) in children born full-term (FT). Stressors associated with poverty, including variability in parenting behavior, may explain links between poverty and poorer EF, but this remains unclear for children born very preterm (VPT). We examine socioeconomic and parental psychosocial adversity on parenting behavior, and whether these factors independently or jointly influence EF in children born VPT. At age five years, 154 children (VPT = 88, FT = 66) completed parent-child interaction and EF tasks. Parental sensitivity, intrusiveness, cognitive stimulation, and positive and negative regard were coded with the Parent-Child Interaction Rating Scale. Socioeconomic adversity spanned maternal demographic stressors, Income-to-Needs ratio, and Area Deprivation Index. Parents completed measures of depression, anxiety, inattention/hyperactivity, parenting stress, and social-communication interaction (SCI) problems. Parental SCI problems were associated with parenting behavior in parents of children born VPT, whereas socioeconomic adversity was significant in parents of FT children. Negative parenting behaviors, but not positive parenting behaviors, were related to child EF. This association was explained by parental depression/anxiety symptoms and socioeconomic adversity. Results persisted after adjustment for parent and child IQ. Findings may inform research on dyadic interventions that embed treatment for parental mood/affective symptoms and SCI problems to improve childhood EF.

Does the Frontal Brain Electrical Activity Mediate the Effect of Home Executive Function Environment and Screen Time on Children's Executive Function?

Executive functions play an important role in various developmental aspects of children; however, environmental factors influencing individual differences in children's executive function and their neural substructures, particularly in middle childhood, are rarely investigated. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate the relationship between the home executive function environment (HEFE) and screen time with the executive function of children aged 8-12 years by employing the mediating variables of alpha, beta, and theta waves. The parents of 133 normal children completed Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning, HEFE, and Screen Time Scales. Alpha, beta, and theta brain waves were also measured. Data were examined using correlational and path analysis. The results suggested a positive and significant relationship between home executive functions and the executive functions of children. Furthermore, the results indicated an inverse and significant relationship between screen time and executive function. The results also proved the mediating role of alpha, beta, and theta brain waves in the relationship between screen time and the children's executive function. Environmental factors (such as home environment and screen time) affect the function of brain waves and, thus, the daily executive function of children.

Revisiting the relationship between maternal parenting behaviors and executive functions in young children: Effect of measurement methods

The past decade of studies showed that parenting behaviors (e.g., warmth, autonomy, and control) were associated with children’s executive functions (EF) in the early years. However, different measurement methods had been used across studies, making it hard to compare the effects of parenting on EF across studies. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the effect of the measurement methods on the relationship between maternal parenting behaviors and children’s EF among a group of Chinese preschoolers. One hundred and twenty-six children (62 boys; Mage = 48.65 months) were assessed with direct measures on children’s EF (inhibition and working memory tasks), and parenting behaviors of their mothers during interaction with children were observed and coded. Mothers also reported their parenting practices and children’s difficulties in executive functions. The results of structural equation modeling showed that the latent performance-based EF was uniquely predicted by maternal positive control and negative control in mother–child interaction, while children’s EF difficulties reported by mothers were predicted by mother-reported warmth and support, and autonomy granting. Overall, the results suggest that the relationship between maternal parenting and children’s EF depends on the measurement methods of parenting and executive functions.

Early parenting behaviour is associated with complex attention outcomes in middle to late childhood in children born very preterm

Attention deficits are common in children born very preterm (VP), especially for children with higher social risk. The aim of this study was to examine the association between parenting behavior and attention in children born VP, and whether this association is influenced by familial social risk. Two hundred and twenty-four children born <30 weeks' gestation and/or with a birth weight <1250 g were recruited at birth. At 2 years, social risk was calculated and parenting behaviors were observed during a parent-child interaction task, with children's attention skills assessed at 7 and 13 years using standardized assessments. Higher levels of sensitive parenting at 2 years were positively associated with divided attention at age 7 years, and higher levels of intrusive parenting were negatively associated with divided attention at 13 years. Children born VP with higher social risk were more positively influenced by sensitive parenting behavior for sustained attention at 7 years, selective attention at 13 years, and divided attention at 7 and 13 years than children born VP with lower social risk. Additionally, children born VP with higher social risk were more negatively influenced by intrusive parenting for sustained attention outcomes at 7 years than those with lower social risk. In summary, the evidence for a contribution of early parenting to attention outcomes in children born VP was stronger for more complex attention (divided attention) compared with basic attention domains. Our findings also suggest that early parenting behavior has a particular influence on children born VP from socially disadvantaged environments for attention outcomes.

Changes in maternal and paternal body composition during the transition to parenthood (TRANSPARENTS)

OBJECTIVE

The transition to parenthood might negatively influence health-related behavior and can result in increased adiposity. The aim of this study was to investigate how body composition in mother-father dyads changes from pregnancy up to 6 months post partum.

METHODS

Anthropometrics were collected from 144 nulliparous couples at 12 weeks of gestation (PG12) and 6 weeks (PP6WK) and 6 months (PP6M) post partum. A longitudinal dyadic confirmatory factor analysis model was used to analyze changes in body composition. Body composition was treated as a latent variable using BMI, body fat percentage, and waist circumference as indicators.

RESULTS

For women, latent means increased at 6 weeks post partum (PP6WK - PG12: +1.115, SE: 0.117, p < 0.001), decreased again at 6 months post partum (PP6M - PP6WK: -0.368, SE: 0.107, p < 0.001), but remained above baseline levels (PP6M - PG12: +0.747; SE: 0.115, p < 0.001). For men, the latent means at follow-up were higher than at baseline (PP6WK-PG12: +0.370, SE: 0.075; PP6M-PG12: +0.366, SE: 0.084, both p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Increases in latent means correspond to unfavorable changes in BMI, body fat percentage, and waist circumference. These changes were observed from the beginning of pregnancy up to 6 months post partum. Weight management for both women and men during pregnancy and the early postpartum period is recommended and fathers should be included in pre- and postnatal standard care.

The Quality of Interactive Behaviors in the Context of Prematurity: Fathers, Mothers, Daughters, and Sons

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the quality of interaction between preterm-born preschoolers and their mothers and fathers, focusing on the role of child and parental sex.

METHODS

Participants included 88 preterm-born children (<37 wk gestational age) and 44 full-term-born children (≥37 wk gestational age) aged 3 1/2 years and their parents. Mother-child and father-child dyads were observed during a structured interactive task. Children's cooperation-compliance and negativity-hostility behaviors were coded using the Coding System for Mother-Child Interactions, and parents' sensitive behavior was coded using the Ainsworth Sensitivity Scale.

RESULTS

There was no association between preterm birth and the quality of child and parents' interactive behaviors. In the full-term group, fathers exhibited lower levels of sensitive behavior than mothers, but in the preterm group, both parents exhibited similar levels of sensitive behavior. Preterm boys exhibited more interactive difficulties than preterm girls, but there was no significant effect of child sex on full-term children's interactive behaviors. Children exhibited more compliance-cooperation and less negativity-hostility toward fathers than toward mothers.

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest that prematurity in itself does not affect the quality of parent-preterm child interactive behaviors as the children enter the preschool period. Preterm boys seem to be at higher risk for interactive difficulties than girls, and thus, child sex should be considered when monitoring and examining the development of preterm children.

Early adversity and positive parenting: Association with cognitive outcomes in children with autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairments in social communication and repetitive behaviors. Children with ASD are statistically more likely to experience early adversity; however, little is known about the types of early adversity that place these children at risk, the role of parenting as a protective factor, and how this early life stress impacts cognitive outcomes. We assessed early adversity in 302 children (ASD = 98) aged 6-16 years old, using parent-based report. To identify protective factors, we assessed parenting styles using parent surveys. Executive functions were assessed in the children using the WISC-V. Children with ASD had an increased incidence of familial stressors compared to the typically developing (TD) group. Positive parenting was associated with a significant decrease in the incidence of familial adverse events for both children with ASD and TD children. Examining the relationship between adversity and cognitive outcomes, in young children (6-11 years) with ASD, environmental stressors were associated with cognitive impairments. Findings suggest children with ASD may be at higher risk for familial adversity than their TD peers. However, all children benefit from positive parenting styles, which may mitigate the adverse effects of family-based early life stress. LAY SUMMARY: Some key features of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) include difficulties with communication and social impairments. This means that children with ASD may be more likely to experience early adversity (stressful social interactions which take place during childhood) than children without ASD. Research in typically developing (TD) children has shown that experiencing more stressful events in childhood can cause changes in the brain, which can potentially impact the child's memory, reasoning, and decision-making skills later in life. However, there is evidence to suggest that having a nurturing relationship with a parent can offset some of the negative impacts of childhood adversity. In our study, we found that children with ASD are more likely to experience family-related stress compared to TD children. Having a positive relationship with a parent, however, was linked to experiencing this type of stress less often for all children, regardless of whether they were diagnosed with ASD. We also found that stressors related to environmental factors like financial instability were associated with lower cognitive abilities in children with ASD under 12 years of age. Understanding how these factors interact and differ in children with ASD can help to build stronger families and help children with ASD to thrive throughout their development.

Parents of Preterm and Very Low Birthweight Infants and Their Childrearing Practices

Emerging research supports that early intervention leads to better health and higher functional status for infants with very low birthweight and/or low gestational age. Optimizing the transition from neonatal intensive care to early intervention programs relies heavily on parent engagement. The purpose of this descriptive correlational study was to investigate the relationship between parental characteristics, childrearing behaviors, and participation in early intervention. We used convenience sampling of 49 parents who participated in early intervention and the Parent Behavior Checklist to assess parent characteristics. Correlation coefficients between parenting behaviors, birthweight, and participation in early intervention were low. An important finding was that most parents in this study were within the "average" range for childrearing practices, despite the documented challenges associated with very low birthweight or gestational age. Despite documented challenges, parents of preterm infants with very low birthweight and parents of typical birthweight infants have similar parenting beliefs and behavior.

The impact of preterm birth on the executive functioning of preschool children: A systematic review

This paper presents a systematic review of the impact of preterm childbirth on the later executive functioning of preschool-aged children. A systematic search for studies published between 2014 and 2019 was performed using the following keywords: executive funct* AND preterm AND child. The methodological quality of the reports was examined using the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement. Thirty-two studies were reviewed and scored at least 67% on the methodological quality assessment. In comparison to children born full-term, preschool children born preterm exhibit executive functioning deficits in the dimensions of the global index, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and planning/executive functioning. These findings are independent of the degree of prematurity at birth. Since executive functioning has many complex components, future studies should assess the dimensions of executive functioning separately in preschool-aged children born preterm, rather than as a single measure.

Escala de desarrollo armónico (EDA): Una propuesta para la evaluación clínica del desarrollo infantil desde la Teoría de Sistemas

Los profesionales de las ciencias de la salud y de la educación necesitan herramientas adecuadas para llevar a cabo la prevención de los trastornos del desarrollo infantil. La Escala de Desarrollo Armónico –EDA–, se presenta como una propuesta que permite la coordinación interdisciplinaria y la colaboración de los educadores. La escala se ha construido para observar el ascenso del paisaje epigenético individual desde el paradigma de los sistemas dinámicos. Para lograrlo, se han estudiado parámetros que pueden explicar la evolución del sistema –índice de armonía y cociente de desarrollo estable–, un mecanismo del cambio –tirón cognitivo– y fuerzas moldeadoras –velocidad y cristalización–, siguiendo el principio de «armonía» para alcanzar el máximo desarrollo potencial. La estructura de la escala es adecuada para funcionar como un test adaptativo informatizado, por lo que resulta accesible, fácil de usar y puede validarse siguiendo la metodología de respuesta al ítem –TRI–. Las cualidades «orgánicas» de la EDA permiten un funcionamiento interactivo a través de Internet –www.maternal.eu–, donde ya presta servicio a educadores, profesionales e investigadores.