Differences in gluten protein composition between old and modern durum wheat genotypes in relation to 20th century breeding in Italy

Characterization among and within Sicilian Tetraploid Wheat Landraces by Gluten Protein Analysis for Traceability Purposes

The criteria of "Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability" as well as a high "overall quality index" are used to register the Italian modern varieties to the national register. Differently, local conservation varieties can be certified under different EU Directives that facilitate, as an overall objective, the preservation of biodiversity and the containment of genetic erosion. In recent years, products derived from ancient grains are perceived to be healthier and more sustainable by consumers, especially in Italy, with consequent higher market prices. The ancient tetraploid wheat varieties registered in the national register of conservation varieties amount to 28, 24 of which are Sicilian. They are supposed to have wide genetic variability compared to modern ones, making them vulnerable to fraud because they are difficult to trace. It is therefore important to have tools able to discriminate between autochthonous Sicilian varieties. This can be completed by gluten proteins composition, which also provides information on the technological properties of derived products. Fifty-one accessions belonging to twenty-two ancient varieties of Sicilian tetraploid (mostly durum) wheat were analyzed. Although wide intra-accession and intra-varietal variability measurements were assessed, the gliadin pattern of bulks of seeds belonging to each variety was discriminatory. Moreover, differences in technological attitudes were found between landraces. This paves the way to use gluten protein patterns for traceability, allowing local farmers and producers to valorize their products and assure consumers regarding the transparency of the entire supply chain.

Tritordeum: Promising Cultivars to Improve Health

Tritordeum is an amphiploides species resulting from the hybridization between durum wheat (T. durum) and wild barley (H. chilense). This new cereal is considered a natural crop as it is obtained by traditional breeding techniques. Given its appreciable organoleptic characteristics, agronomic features, presence of interesting components, and good technological properties, Tritordeum is of promising interest for the development of health-oriented foods. In this study, we evaluated two registered Tritordeum cultivars, Bulel and Aucan. T. durum (Provenzal) was employed as the positive control. The extracted proteins were digested by gastric/pancreatic proteases, and their biological effects on Caco-2 differentiated on transwell inserts were determined. Changes in cell viability, monolayer permeability, organization of F-actin microfilaments, and ER stress triggered by protein-digested samples (DPs) were inspected. Our results showed that exposure to Provenzal-DPs promptly disrupted the tight junction barrier. Conversely, Aucan-DPs did not enhance monolayer permeability, whereas Bulel-DPs exerted only slight effects. Provental-DPs-induced toxicity was also confirmed by changes in cell viability and by the deep reorganization of the enterocyte cytoskeleton. In contrast, Aucan-DPs and Bulel-DPs did not affect monolayer viability and cytoskeleton structure. Overall, our findings suggest that both Tritordeum cultivars could be potential candidates for mitigating the toxicity of wheat flour.

Peasant vs. Industrial durum wheat pasta: Impact of each processing step on protein solubility and digestibility

Some people with Non-Coeliac Gluten (or Wheat) Sensitivity (NCGS) declare that they can consume peasant pasta without the usual inconvenience they experience after eating industrial pasta. The main differences between peasant and industrial pasta lie in the varieties used (old vs. modern), and the production chain (grain milling, semolina hydration and mixing, extrusion or lamination, drying and packaging). Yet, the varieties, the material and the method used by the peasants and by the industrial sector to make pasta differ at each stage. The impact of each of these stages was analyzed on protein quantity and quality from semolina to cooked pasta. Grown in the same conditions, the old variety (cv. Bidi 17) used by farmers contained much more protein than the modern variety (cv. Anvergur) recommended by industry and its pasta was better-digested in-vitro. Focusing on cooked pasta, milling had a great impact on not easily soluble proteins (DTE-soluble proteins): pasta made from stone-milled grains (peasant method) had less DTE-soluble proteins than pasta made from roller-milled grains (industrial method) and a higher amount of in-vitro digested proteins. The mixing and extrusion step mainly affected the easily soluble proteins (SDS-soluble proteins). The amount of such proteins was greater for farmer cooked pasta (non-monitored extrusion) than for industrial ones (monitored extrusion). Concerning the drying step, the proportion of SDS-soluble proteins was higher for the pasta dried at low temperature (peasant method), compared to high temperature (industrial method). Thus, the observation that peasant cooked pasta would be more digestible than industrial pasta seems to be due mainly to variety (61%), to a lesser extent to grinding on a stone-mill (22%) and extrusion on non-monitored conditions (16%) and finally a little (1%) to drying at low temperature and therefore longer.

Characterization of Triticum turgidum sspp. durum, turanicum, and polonicum grown in Central Italy in relation to technological and nutritional aspects

Introduction

Wheat is a staple food, with the two most common species being Triticum aestivum and Triticum turgidum ssp. durum. Moreover, the latter, T. turgidum, includes other tetraploid subspecies, among which the sspp. turanicum (Khorasan wheat) and polonicum (Polish wheat), whose importance has increased in the last decades, representing alternative crops for marginal areas, in addition to being a source of genetic diversity.

Methods

In this work, different accessions of these three subspecies of T. turgidum have been grown in 2 years in the same environment and have been characterized for technological properties and factors affecting nutritional quality, such as fiber amount and the content of micro- and macro-nutrients in grains, and for root morphological traits.

Results

These analyses allowed the identification, in particular, of a Polish wheat accession showing better technological performances, a higher amount of positive micro- and macro-elements, and a lower amount of toxic cadmium. The modern variety Svevo and the Polish Pol2 showed the lowest and the highest shoot:root ratio, respectively. The high shoot:root ratio in Pol2 was mainly attributable to the decrease in root growth. Although Pol2 had a lower root biomass, its particular root morphology made it more efficient for nutrient uptake, as evident from the greater accumulation of micro- and macro-nutrients.

Discussion

These results underline that it is not possible to draw general conclusions about the difference between primitive and modern wheats, but rather a case-by-case approach should be chosen.

Phenotypic evolution in durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) based on SNPs, morphological traits, UPOV descriptors and kernel-related traits

Durum wheat is a worldwide staple crop cultivated mainly in the Mediterranean basin. Progress in durum wheat breeding requires the exploitation of genetic variation among the gene pool enclosed in landraces, old cultivars and modern cultivars. The aim of this study was to provide a more comprehensive view of the genetic architecture evolution among 123 durum wheat accessions (41 landraces, 41 old cultivars and 41 modern cultivars), grown in replicated randomized complete block in two areas, Metaponto (Basilicata) and Foggia (Apulia), using the Illumina iSelect 15K wheat SNP array and 33 plant and kernel traits including the International Union for the Protection of new Varieties of Plants (UPOV) descriptors. Through DAPC and Bayesian population structure five groups were identified according to type of material data and reflecting the genetic basis and breeding strategies involved in their development. Phenotypic and genotypic coefficient of variation were low for kernel width (6.43%) and for grain protein content (1.03%). Highly significant differences between environments, genotypes and GEI (Genotype x Environment Interaction) were detected by mixed ANOVAs for agro-morphological-quality traits. Number of kernels per spike (h2 = 0.02) and grain protein content (h2 = 0.03) were not a heritability character and highly influenced by the environment. Nested ANOVAs revealed highly significant differences between DAPC clusters within environments for all traits except kernel roundness. Ten UPOV traits showed significant diversity for their frequencies in the two environments. By PCAmix multivariate analysis, plant height, heading time, spike length, weight of kernels per spike, thousand kernel weight, and the seed related traits had heavy weight on the differentiation of the groups, while UPOV traits discriminated moderately or to a little extent. The data collected in this study provide useful resources to facilitate management and use of wheat genetic diversity that has been lost due to selection in the last decades.

Novel Genetic Loci from Triticum timopheevii Associated with Gluten Content Revealed by GWAS in Wheat Breeding Lines

The content and quality of gluten in wheat grain is a distinctive characteristic that determines the final properties of wheat flour. In this study, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) was performed on a wheat panel consisting of bread wheat varieties and the introgression lines (ILs) obtained via hybridization with tetraploid wheat relatives. A total of 17 stable quantitative trait nucleotides (QTNs) located on chromosomes 1D, 2A, 2B, 3D, 5A, 6A, 7B, and 7D that explained up to 21% of the phenotypic variation were identified. Among them, the QTLs on chromosomes 2A and 7B were found to contain three and six linked SNP markers, respectively. Comparative analysis of wheat genotypes according to the composition of haplotypes for the three closely linked SNPs of chromosome 2A indicated that haplotype TT/AA/GG was characteristic of ten ILs containing introgressions from T. timopheevii. The gluten content in the plants with TT/AA/GG haplotype was significantly higher than in the varieties with haplotype GG/GG/AA. Having compared the newly obtained data with the previously reported quantitative trait loci (QTLs) we inferred that the locus on chromosome 2A inherited from T. timopheevii is potentially novel. The introgression lines containing the new locus can be used as sources of genetic factors to improve the quality traits of bread wheat.

Sicilian Rivet Wheat Landraces: Grain Characteristics and Technological Quality of Flour and Bread

In recent years, the growth of tetraploid Sicilian wheat landraces has been arousing increasing interest. In this study, eighteen local genotypes of Triticum turgidum subsp. turgidum, belonging to the groups 'Bufala', 'Ciciredda', 'Bivona' and 'Paola', and two cultivars of Triticum turgidum subsp. durum (the old variety 'Bidì', and a more recent variety 'Simeto') were assessed for the characteristics of the grain and bread-making performance of their flours and doughs, as well as the quality of the loaves. The grain of the twenty genotypes came from a field trial conducted during 2018-2019 in south-eastern Sicily. The main commercial features of the grain (thousand kernel weight and hectolitre weight), including the defects (starchy, black pointed and shrunken kernels), were determined. The wholemeal flours and doughs obtained from the grain of each genotype were evaluated for the main technological quality (physico-chemical and rheological characteristics), and processed into loaves, whose main quality indices (volume, height, weight, moisture and porosity) were assessed. The results from such analyses allowed the authors to evaluate the genotypes' bread-making suitability. In particular, for the grain characteristics, hectolitre weight varied from 68.23 ('Bufala Rossa Lunga 01') to 77.43 ('Bidì 03') kg/hL, passing through the typical values for common and durum wheat. Among the grain defects, the black point defect was absent in all the grain samples, except for that of 'Bufala Nera Corta 01' (2%). Dry gluten content varied from 6.22 to 10.23 g/100 g, and sedimentation test values were low or medium-low, with values ranging from 22 to 35 mL. Amylase activity was low and highly variable among the genotypes, with the maximum value observed for 'Bufala Rossa Corta b01' (509 s). The doughs evidenced a poor quality for bread making with alveograph values of W ranging from 12 to 145 (10^-4 × Joule) and thus the volume of the loaves varied from 346.25 cm³ of 'Bivona' and 'Ciciredda' to 415.00 cm³ of 'Bufala Rossa Lunga'. A Tandem Cluster Analysis was conducted on a set of all the response variables. The Hierarchical Cluster Analysis was initially run. A five-cluster solution identified three clusters further segmented and two single branches. Overall, the study highlighted the possibility of using some of these landraces alone for the production of traditional breads locally appreciated or together with other ingredients for the production of crumbly baked goods such as substitutes for bread and biscuits.

Novel quality features to expand durum wheat applications

Durum wheat represents a staple food in the human diet owing to its nutritional and technological features. In comparison to common wheat, durum wheat has higher tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. However, its production and culinary uses are limited compared to common wheat. Therefore, significant attention was attributed to upgrading the key quality of durum wheat (i.e., hardness, protein, starch and color). This review intends to put the spotlight on the modification of these properties to create new functionalities suiting a wider range of food applications based on critical compilation of scientific publications. Targeting specific genes has been shown to be a valuable strategy to design novel wheat varieties with higher nutritional value (e.g., high amylose), improved technological properties (e.g., higher glutenin content), attractive appearance (e.g., colored wheat) and new uses (e.g., soft durum wheat for breadmaking). Further efforts are still needed to find efficient ways to stabilize and maintain these properties. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Antioxidants and Phenolic Acid Composition of Wholemeal and Refined-Flour, and Related Biscuits in Old and Modern Cultivars Belonging to Three Cereal Species

Cereals are a good source of phenolics and carotenoids with beneficial effects on human health. In this study, a 2-year evaluation was undertaken on grain, wholemeal and refined-flour of two cultivars, one old and one modern, belonging to three cereal species. Wholemeal of selected cultivars for each species was used for biscuit making. In the grain, some yield-related traits and proteins (PC) were evaluated. In the flours and biscuits, total polyphenols (TPC), flavonoids (TFC), proanthocyanidins (TPAC), carotenoids (TYPC) and antioxidant activities (DPPH and TEAC) were spectrophotometrically determined, whereas HPLC was used for the composition of soluble free and conjugated, and insoluble bound phenolic acids. Species (S), genotype (G) and 'SxG' were highly significant for yield-related and all antioxidant traits, whereas cropping year (Y) significantly affected yield-related traits, PC, TPC, TPAC, TEAC and 'SxGxY' interaction was significant for yield-related traits, TPAC, TYPC, TEAC, DPPH and all phenolic acid fractions. Apart from the TYPC that prevailed in durum wheat together with yield-related traits, barley was found to have significantly higher values for all the other parameters. Generally, the modern cultivars are richest in antioxidant compounds. The free and conjugated fractions were more representative in emmer, while the bound fraction was prevalent in barley and durum wheat. Insoluble bound phenolic acids represented 86.0% of the total, and ferulic acid was the most abundant in all species. A consistent loss of antioxidants was observed in all refined flours. The experimental biscuits were highest in phytochemicals than commercial control. Although barley biscuits were nutritionally superior, their lower consumer acceptance could limit their diffusion. New insights are required to find optimal formulations for better nutritional, sensorial and health biscuits.

Varietal identification in pasta through an SSR-based approach: a case study

BACKGROUND

Pasta is a worldwide popular Italian food made exclusively of durum wheat. The choice of variety to be used to produce pasta is at the discretion of the producer based on the peculiar characteristics of each cultivar. The availability of analytical approaches for the tracking of specific varieties along the productive chain is becoming increasingly important to authenticate the pasta products and distinguish between fraudulent activities and cross-contaminations during the production process. Among the different methods, molecular approaches based on DNA markers are the most used for these purposes because of their ease of use and high reproducibility.

RESULTS

In the present study, we used an easy simple sequence repeats-based method to identify the durum wheat varieties used to produce 25 samples of semolina and commercial pasta comparing their molecular profile with those of the four varieties declared by the producer and other 10 durum wheat cultivars commonly used in pasta production. All of the samples showed the expected molecular profile; however, most of them present also a foreign allele indicating a possible cross-contamination. Moreover, we evaluated the accuracy of the proposed approach through the analysis of 27 hand-made mixtures with increasing amounts of a specific contaminant variety, allowing the estimation of the limit of detection of 5% (w/w).

CONCLUSION

We demonstrated the feasibility of the proposed method and its effectiveness in the detection of not declared varieties when these are present in a percentage equal to or higher than 5%. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Farmer vs. Industrial Practices: Impact of Variety, Cropping System and Process on the Quality of Durum Wheat Grains and Final Products

The consumption of artisanal and organic pasta made on-farm from ancient varieties is increasing in France. Some people, namely, those suffering from digestive disorders following the consumption of industrial pasta, consider these artisanal pasta to be more digestible. Most of them have linked these digestive disorders to the ingestion of gluten. We analyzed in this study the impact of industrial and artisanal practices on the protein quality of durum wheat products. The varieties recommended by the industry (IND) were compared to those used by farmers (FAR): the FAR being on average much richer in protein. However, the solubility of these proteins analyzed by Size Exclusion-High Performance Liquid Chromatography (SE-HPLC) and their in vitro proteolysis by digestive enzymes vary little between the two groups of varieties, while differences between varieties in each group are observable. The location of grain production and the tested cropping systems (zero vs. low input) have a low impact on protein quality. Yet, more contrasting modalities should be studied to validate this point. The type of production process (artisanal vs. industrial) is, among those studied, the factor having the greatest impact on protein compositionPasta produced by the artisanal method contains a higher sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-soluble protein fraction and are more in-vitro proteolyzed. Whether these criteria are indicative of what happens during a consumer's digestion remains to be determined. It also remains to be assessed which key stages of the process have the greatest influence on protein quality.

Factors Affecting the Nutritional, Health, and Technological Quality of Durum Wheat for Pasta-Making: A Systematic Literature Review

Durum wheat is one of the most important food sources in the world, playing a key role in human nutrition, as well as in the economy of the different countries in which its production areas are concentrated. Its grain also represents a staple and highly versatile ingredient in the development of health foods. Nonetheless, the aspects determining durum wheat's health quality and their interactions are many, complex, and not entirely known. Therefore, the present systematic literature review aims at advancing the understanding of the relationships among nutritional, health, and technological properties of durum wheat grain, semolina, and pasta, by evaluating the factors that, either positively or negatively, can affect the quality of the products. Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science databases were systematically searched utilising sets of keywords following the PRISMA guidelines, and the relevant results of the definitive 154 eligible studies were presented and discussed. Thus, the review identified the most promising strategies to improve durum wheat quality and highlighted the importance of adopting multidisciplinary approaches for such purposes.

Comparative Characterization of Grain Protein Content and Composition by Chromatography-Based Separation Methods (SE-HPLC and RP-HPLC) of Ten Wheat Varieties Grown in Different Agro-Ecological Zones of Algeria

To characterize and compare the protein quality of ten durum wheat genotypes grown under three cropping modalities in Algeria (subhumid in Algiers, subhumid-semiarid in Constantine, and semiarid in Sétif), the protein profile of their kernels was performed by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (SE-HPLC and RP-HPLC). The “variety” factor has a major impact, mainly on the insoluble fraction (Fi), on the gliadin/glutenin ratio, on the large and small glutenin aggregates (F1 and F2, respectively), and on ω-gliadins and high molecular weight albumins (F3). Conversely, the total protein content and the albumin-globulin fraction (F5) depend mainly on the environment. The α- β- and γ-gliadins (F4) are equally dependent on variety and environment. The subhumid-semiarid agroecological conditions of Constantine (SH-SA) favored an important accumulation of proteins (14.1%), particularly by an increased synthesis of omega gliadins and high-molecular-weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GS), compared to those of Algiers (SH) and Sétif (SA). For these latter environments, metabolic-type proteins are predominant, reflected in a higher F5 fraction (p < 0.05) (albumin and globulin), and significantly more alpha-beta and gamma gliadins. The use of chromatographic analyses to characterize wheat genotypes remains a reliable tool for breeding and variety promotion programs and can provide a better understanding of the ecophysiology of cereal crops.

Climate change effects on bread wheat phenology and grain quality: A case study in the north of Italy

Increasing temperatures, heat waves, and reduction of annual precipitation are all the expressions of climate change (CC), strongly affecting bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain yield in Southern Europe. Being temperature the major driving force of plants' phenological development, these variations also have effects on wheat phenology, with possible consequences on grain quality, and gluten protein accumulation. Here, through a case study in the Bolognese Plain (North of Italy), we assessed the effects of CC in the area, the impacts on bread wheat phenological development, and the consequences on grain gluten quality. The increasing trend in mean annual air temperature in the area since 1952 was significant, with a breakpoint identified in 1989, rising from 12.7 to 14.1°C, accompanied by the signals of increasing aridity, i.e., increase in water table depth. Bread wheat phenological development was compared in two 15-year periods before and after the breakpoint, i.e., 1952-1966 (past period), and 2006-2020 (present period), the latest characterized by aridity and increased temperatures. A significant shortening of the chronological time necessary to reach the main phenological phases was observed for the present period compared to the past period, finally shortening the whole life cycle. This reduction, as well as the higher temperature regime, affected gluten accumulation during the grain-filling process, as emerged analyzing gluten composition in grain samples of the same variety harvested in the area both before and after the breakpoint in temperature. In particular, the proportion of gluten polymers (i.e., gliadins, high and low molecular weight glutenins, and their ratio) showed a strong and significant correlation with cumulative growing degree days (CGDDs) accumulated during the grain filling. Higher CGDD values during the period, typical of CC in Southern Europe, accounting for higher temperature and faster grain filling, correlated with gliadins, high molecular weight glutenins, and their proportion with low molecular weight glutenins. In summary, herein reported, data might contribute to assessing the effects of CC on wheat phenology and quality, representing a tool for both predictive purposes and decision supporting systems for farmers, as well as can guide future breeding choices for varietal innovation.

Comparative Genetic Analysis of Durum Wheat Landraces and Cultivars Widespread in Tunisia

The durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. ssp. durum Desf.) landraces constitute a useful natural germplasm to increase the genetic diversity in the modern durum cultivars. The Tunisian durum germplasm constitutes 28 accessions conserved in Genebank of Tunisia, which are still unexplored. In this study, a comparative genetic analysis was performed to investigate the relationships between the Tunisian durum lines and the modern cultivars and detect divergent loci involved in breeding history. The genetic diversity analyses carried out using nine morphological descriptors and the 25K single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array allowed us to distinguish two groups of Tunisian landraces and one of durum cultivars. The analysis of molecular variance and diversity indices confirmed the genetic variability among the groups. A total of 529 SNP loci were divergent between Tunisian durum landraces and modern cultivars. Candidate genes related to plant and spike architecture, including FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT-B1), zinc finger CONSTANS, and AP2/EREBPs transcription factors, were identified. In addition, divergent genes involved in grain composition and biotic stress nucleotide-binding site and leucine-reach repeats proteins and disease resistance proteins (NBS-LRR and RPM) were found, suggesting that the Tunisian durum germplasm may represent an important source of favorable alleles to be used in future durum breeding programs for developing well-adapted and resilient cultivars.

Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity and Protective Role of Dietary Polyphenols

Pathogenetically characterized by the absence of celiac disease and wheat allergy, non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) is a clinical entity triggered by the consumption of gluten-containing foods that relieved by a gluten-free diet. Since it is very difficult to maintain a complete gluten-free diet, there is a high interest in discovering alternative strategies aimed at reducing gluten concentration or mitigating its toxic effects. Plant-based dietary models are usually rich in bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, recognized to prevent, delay, or even reverse chronic diseases, including intestinal disorders. However, research on the role of polyphenols in mitigating the toxicity of gluten-containing foods is currently limited. We address the metabolic fate of dietary polyphenols, both as free and bound macromolecule-linked forms, with particular reference to the gastrointestinal compartment, where the concentration of polyphenols can reach high levels. We analyze the potential targets of polyphenols including the gluten peptide bioavailability, the dysfunction of the intestinal epithelial barrier, intestinal immune response, oxidative stress and inflammation, and dysbiosis. Overall, this review provides an updated overview of the effects of polyphenols as possible dietary strategies to counteract the toxic effects of gluten, potentially resulting in the improved quality of life of patients with gluten-related disorders.

Barriers and levers to enhance end-use functional properties of durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L.) grain: An agronomic implication

The current trends in population growth and consumption pattern remain to increase the demand for durum wheat grain. However, multiple biotic and abiotic challenges due to climate change coupled with crop management practices possess major concern to improve durum wheat production and storage proteins. Efforts on developing innovative agronomic and breeding strategies are essential to enhance productivity, and nutritional quality under the changing climate. Nitrogen is an important structural component of protein, and potentially reduce the adverse effect of drought stress through maintaining metabolic activities. Optimum nitrogen fertilization allows durum wheat producing farmers to attain high quality yield, brings economic benefit, and reduces environmental pollution. However, defining an optimum nitrogen fertilizer rate for specific location requires considering yield achievement and quality of the end products. If the producers interest is, geared towards production of high protein content, high nitrogen dose is required. If the interest gears towards grain yield improvement optimization of nitrogen fertilizer rate is important. This indicates that defining product-specific nitrogen application is required for sustainable durum wheat production. Therefore, future challenges of increasing production, productivity, and end-use functional properties of durum wheat will only be achieved through cooperation of multidisciplinary teams who are able to incorporate new technologies.

Ancient Caucasian Wheats: A Contribution for Sustainable Diets and Food Diversity

Through the centuries, the domestication and modern breeding of wheat led to a significant loss of genetic variation in the cultivated gene pool with a consequent decrease in food diversity. Current trends towards low-input and sustainable agriculture call for the revitalization and exploitation of ancient wheats, which represent a reservoir of biodiversity useful to ensure sustainable wheat production in the context of climate change and low-input farming systems. Ancient Caucasian wheat species, such as the hulled wheats Triticum timopheevii (tetraploid A^uA^uGG) and Triticum zhukovskyi (hexaploid A^uA^uA^mA^mGG), are still grown to a limited extent in the Caucasus for the production of traditional foods. These Caucasian wheats were grown in Italy and were analyzed for physical, nutritional and technological characteristics and compared to durum wheat. Both Caucasian species revealed a high protein content (on average 18.5%) associated with a low gluten index, mainly in T. zhukovskyi, and test weight values comparable to commercial wheats. The total antioxidant capacity was revealed to be the double of that in durum wheat, suggesting the use of ancient Caucasian wheats for the production of healthy foods. Finally, the technological and rheological results indicated that Caucasian wheats could be potential raw material for the formulation of flat breads, biscuits and pasta.

The Use of a Non-Invasive Electrical Method to Assess the Chemical Composition, Hardness, and Color of Durum Wheat Grain Cultivated in an Integrated System

Electrical properties are the least known and described among the physical properties of food products. The most widespread practical directions of their use include moisture measurements as well as dielectric and microwave heating. Less frequently, they are used to assess the physicochemical parameters of food products, including the technological features of cereal grains. Earlier research by the authors of this paper demonstrated the possibility of using an RCC substitute model of food products (conductivity and capacitance parameters) to identify the grain variety, geometric features, level of grain damage as well as grain moisture content. This model can also be used to distinguish cereal species as well as to assess the proximate chemical composition of their grain. The promising results obtained in this area encouraged us to expand the research with a material important from the food market perspective—durum wheat, obtained in the conditions of sustainable cultivation in north-eastern Europe (temperate climate). The study material was obtained from a proprietary sustainable production technology designed in a strict field experiment. The aim of this research was: (1) to assess the effect of an integrated cultivation system of native durum wheat (six variants), differentiated by a nitrogen fertilization dose (0, 80, 120 kg·ha−1) and with and without growth regulator (GR, WGR) on changes in selected quality parameters (protein, lipid, and starch contents; hardness; color) and electrical parameters (Z, Cp, Cs) of the grain; and (2) to determine the correlations between the examined quality traits and electrical properties of the grain to indicate the possibility of using a non-invasive electrical method to assess grain quality. The highest contents of starch and total lipids and the highest grain hardness were obtained in the cultivation variants GR + 0N and WGR + 0N, whereas the highest protein content—upon wheat fertilization with 120N. The study demonstrated a different strength of the correlations between the tested parameters depending on the cultivation method. In the WGR + 0N variant (environmentally friendly), the strongest correlation between grain quality traits and electrical properties was obtained for both the conductive (Z) and capacitive (Cp, Cs) parameters in the entire analyzed range of current frequencies. The cultivation of durum wheat in the integrated system, especially in the WGR variant, facilitates grain quality modeling and enables using a non-invasive electrical method for a rapid assessment of the quality traits of the grain while raising no concerns over natural environment safety. The growth regulator (GR) application during native durum wheat cultivation hampers the use of the analyzed electrical method to assess its grain quality.

14-weeks combined exercise epigenetically modulated 118 genes of menopausal women with prediabetes

BACKGROUND

Pre-diabetes precedes Diabetes Mellitus (DM) disease and is a critical period for hyperglycemia treatment, especially for menopausal women, considering all metabolic alterations due to hormonal changes. Recently, the literature has demonstrated the role of physical exercise in epigenetic reprogramming to modulate the gene expression patterns of metabolic conditions, such as hyperglycemia, and prevent DM development. In the present study, we hypothesized that physical exercise training could modify the epigenetic patterns of women with poor glycemic control.

METHODS

48 post-menopause women aged 60.3 ± 4.5 years were divided according to their fasting blood glucose levels into two groups: Prediabetes Group, PG (n=24), and Normal Glucose Group, NGG (n=24). All participants performed 14 weeks of physical exercise three times a week. The Infinium Methylation EPIC BeadChip measured the participants' Different Methylated Regions (DMRs).

RESULTS

Before the intervention, the PG group had 12 DMRs compared to NGG. After the intervention, five DMRs remained different. Interestingly, when comparing the PG group before and after training, 118 DMRs were found. The enrichment analysis revealed that the genes were related to different biological functions such as energy metabolism, cell differentiation, and tumor suppression.

CONCLUSION

Physical exercise is a relevant alternative in treating hyperglycemia and preventing DM in post-menopause women with poor glycemic control.

Wheat Breeding, Fertilizers, and Pesticides: Do They Contribute to the Increasing Immunogenic Properties of Modern Wheat?

Celiac disease (CD) is a small intestinal inflammatory condition where consumption of gluten induces a T-cell mediated immune response that damages the intestinal mucosa in susceptible individuals. CD affects at least 1% of the world’s population. The increasing prevalence of CD has been reported over the last few decades. However, the reason for this increase is not known so far. Certain factors such as increase in awareness and the development of advanced and highly sensitive diagnostic screening markers are considered significant factors for this increase. Wheat breeding strategies, fertilizers, and pesticides, particularly herbicides, are also thought to have a role in the increasing prevalence. However, less is known about this issue. In this review, we investigated the role of these agronomic practices in depth. Our literature-based results showed that wheat breeding, use of nitrogen-based fertilizers, and herbicides cannot be solely responsible for the increase in celiac prevalence. However, applying nitrogen fertilizers is associated with an increase in gluten in wheat, which increases the risk of developing celiac-specific symptoms in gluten-sensitive individuals. Additionally, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) techniques can edit multiple gliadin genes, resulting in a low-immunogenic wheat variety that is safe for such individuals.

Influence of Drought and Salt Stress on Durum Wheat Grain Quality and Composition: A Review

Durum wheat is a staple crop for the Mediterranean diet because of its adaptability to environmental pressure and for its large use in cereal-based food products, such as pasta and bread, as a source of calories and proteins. Durum wheat whole grains are also highly valued for their peculiar amount of dietary fiber and minerals, as well as bioactive compounds of particular interest for their putative health-beneficial properties, including polyphenols, carotenoids, tocopherols, tocotrienols, and phytosterols. In Mediterranean environments, durum wheat is mostly grown under rainfed conditions, where the crop often experiences environmental stresses, especially water deficit and soil salinity that may induce a hyperosmotic stress. In particular, changes in C and N accumulation due to these abiotic conditions, during grain filling, can influence starch and storage protein amount and composition in durum wheat caryopsis, thus influencing yield and quality traits. Recent advancements regarding the influence of water deficit and salinity stress on durum wheat are critically discussed. In particular, a focus on stress-induced changes in (a) grain protein content and composition in relation to technological and health quality; (b) starch and dietary fiber accumulation and composition; (c) phytochemical composition; (d) health-related grain micronutrient accumulation, such as Fe and Zn.

Allelic Variation at Glutenin Loci (Glu-1, Glu-2 and Glu-3) in a Worldwide Durum Wheat Collection and Its Effect on Quality Attributes

Durum wheat grains (Triticum turgidum L. ssp. durum) are the main source for the production of pasta, bread and a variety of products consumed worldwide. The quality of pasta is mainly defined by the rheological properties of gluten, an elastic network in wheat endosperms formed of gliadins and glutenins. In this study, the allelic variation at five glutenin loci was analysed in 196 durum wheat genotypes. Two loci (Glu-A1 and Glu-B1), encoding for high-molecular-weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GS), and three loci (Glu-B2, Glu-A3 and Glu-B3), encoding for low molecular weight glutenin subunits (LMW-GS), were assessed by SDS-PAGE. The SDS-sedimentation test was used and the grain protein content was evaluated. A total of 32 glutenin subunits and 41 glutenin haplotypes were identified. Four novel alleles were detected. Fifteen haplotypes represented 85.7% of glutenin loci variability. Some haplotypes carrying the 7 + 15 and 7 + 22 banding patterns at Glu-B1 showed a high gluten strength similar to those that carried the 7 + 8 or 6 + 8 alleles. A decreasing trend in grain protein content was observed over the last 85 years. Allelic frequencies at the three main loci (Glu-B1, Glu-A3 and Glu-B3) changed over the 1915–2020 period. Gluten strength increased from 1970 to 2020 coinciding with the allelic changes observed. These results offer valuable information for glutenin haplotype-based selection for use in breeding programs.

Agronomic Strategies to Improve N Efficiency Indices in Organic Durum Wheat Grown in Mediterranean Area

Organic farming systems are often constrained by limited soil nitrogen (N) availability. Here we evaluated the effect of foliar organic N and sulphur (S), and selenium (Se) application on durum wheat, considering N uptake, utilization efficiency (NUtE), grain yield, and protein concentration as target variables. Field trials were conducted in 2018 and 2019 on two old (Cappelli and old Saragolla) and two modern (Marco Aurelio and Nadif) Italian durum wheat varieties. Four organic fertilization strategies were evaluated, i.e., the control (CTR, dry blood meal at sowing), the application of foliar N (CTR + N) and S (CTR + S), and their joint use (CTR + NS). Furthermore, a foliar application of sodium selenate was evaluated. Three factors-variety, fertilization strategies and selenium application-were arranged in a split-split-plot design and tested in two growing seasons. The modern variety Marco Aurelio led to the highest NUtE and grain yield in both seasons. S and N applications had a positive synergic effect, especially under drought conditions, on pre-anthesis N uptake, N translocation, NUtE, and grain yield. Se treatment improved post-anthesis N uptake and NUtE, leading to 17% yield increase in the old variety Cappelli, and to 13% and 14% yield increase in Marco Aurelio and Nadif, mainly attributed to NUtE increase. This study demonstrated that the synergistic effect of foliar applications could improve organic durum wheat yields in Mediterranean environments, especially on modern varieties.

Evaluation of Glycemic Index of Six Different Samples of Commercial and Experimental Pasta Differing in Wheat Varieties and Production Processes

Pasta is a staple food of the Mediterranean Diet, and it is traditionally made of durum wheat semolina. In Sicily, durum wheat production and its transformation into semolina, bread, and pasta are well-developed economic sectors. For pasta, there is a wide supply of commercial brands, whether coming from conventional industrial manufacturing or from medium to small and local handcrafted production. Both conventional durum wheat and local durum wheat landraces, such as Timilia and Russello, are used for pasta production, but local landraces are, for the most, transformed into handcrafted pasta. The market of local landraces durum wheat pasta has risen in recent decades, in Sicily and in Italy as well, boosted by a perceived high nutritional and healthy value of these wheat derivatives. In particular, a popular and scientifically unproven idea suggests that a reduced glycemic response might be elicited by these pasta landraces. Therefore, to test this hypothesis, the main objective of the present study was the evaluation of the glycemic index (GI) of four samples of Timilia and Russello handcrafted pasta and two samples of conventional durum wheat pasta. The study enrolled fourteen healthy weight male and female volunteers aged from 18 to 46; eight test sessions were performed twice a week, every session testing a pasta sample (six sessions) or the glucose solution chosen as reference food (two sessions). The standard methodology for GI measurement was followed during each step of the study. The six tested pasta samples were characterized regarding their composition (protein, fiber, and starch content) and their whole production processes (milling method and milling diagram of flour or semolina, drying temperature, and diagram of pasta shape). The six tested pasta samples showed GI values ranging from low (34.1) to intermediate (63.1). Timilia and Russello pasta are the first GI calculations available. The two samples made of conventional grains showed lower values of GI (34.1 and 37.8). The results do not support the popular idea of a reduced glycemic response elicited by Timilia and Russello wheat landrace pasta; the tested samples showed GI values in the range of 56.2 to 63.1. However, some consideration should be made of factors other than wheat varieties and related to production processes that may have affected the final GIs of the pastas. Even if the study is not designed to discriminate among factors related to wheat varieties or processes used to produce different pasta, it is a preliminary step in the characterization of the healthy potential of the local wheat landraces, popularly called ancient grain. A future implementation of the local wheat landraces supply chain should pay attention to all the factors above, from a better seed identity certification to the production process in order to further improve the healthy value of these staples of the Mediterranean Diet.

Solvent Retention Capacity and Gluten Protein Composition of Durum Wheat Flour as Influenced by Drought and Heat Stress

Drought and temperature stress can cause considerable gluten protein accumulation changes during grain-filling, resulting in variations in wheat quality. The contribution of functional polymeric components of flour to its overall functionality and quality can be measured using solvent retention capacity (SRC). The aim of this study was to determine the effect of moderate and severe drought and heat stress on SRC and swelling index of glutenin (SIG) in six durum wheat cultivars with the same glutenin subunit composition and its relation with gluten protein fractions from size exclusion high performance liquid chromatography. Distilled water, sodium carbonate and sucrose SRC reacted similarly to stress conditions, with moderate heat causing the lowest values. Lactic acid SRC and SIG reacted similarly, where severe heat stress highly significantly increased the values. SIG was significantly correlated with sodium dodecyl sulphate sedimentation (SDSS) and flour protein content (FPC) under all conditions. Lactic acid SRC was highly correlated with FPC under optimal and moderate heat stress and with SDSS under moderate drought and severe heat. SIG was negatively correlated with low molecular weight glutenins under optimal and drought conditions, and combined for all treatments. The relationship between SRC and gluten proteins was inconsistent under different stress conditions.

Quantitative Label-Free Comparison of the Metabolic Protein Fraction in Old and Modern Italian Wheat Genotypes by a Shotgun Approach

Wheat represents one of the most important cereals for mankind. However, since wheat proteins are also the causative agent of several adverse reactions, during the last decades, consumers have shown an increasing interest in the old wheat genotypes, which are generally perceived as more "natural" and healthier than the modern ones. Comparison of nutritional value for modern and old wheat genotypes is still controversial, and to evaluate the real impact of these foods on human health comparative experiments involving old and modern genotypes are desirable. The nutritional quality of grain is correlated with its proteomic composition that depends on the interplay between the genetic characteristics of the plant and external factors related to the environment. We report here the label-free shotgun quantitative comparison of the metabolic protein fractions of two old Sicilian landraces (Russello and Timilia) and the modern variety Simeto, from the 2010-2011 and 2011-2012 growing seasons. The overall results show that Timilia presents the major differences with respect to the other two genotypes investigated. These differences may be related to different defense mechanisms and some other peculiar properties of these genotypes. On the other hand, our results confirm previous results leading to the conclusion that with respect to a nutritional value evaluation, there is a substantial equivalence between old and modern wheat genotypes. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier <PXD024204>.

Influence of grain quality, semolinas and baker's yeast on bread made from old landraces and modern genotypes of Sicilian durum wheat

Several studies showed that products made with ancient wheat genotypes have beneficial health properties compared to those obtained with modern wheat varieties, even though the mechanisms responsible for the positive effects are not clear. Ancient durum wheat genotypes are being currently used for the production of pasta, bread and other typical bakery products but the consumption is strictly local. In this work 15 genotypes of Triticum turgidum subsp. durum, including 10 ancient and 5 modern, were characterized for their technological traits through the determination of different parameters: protein content, dry gluten, gluten index, yellow index, ash, P/L, W and G. In addition, the baking aptitude of all genotypes was evaluated. All semolinas were subjected to leavening by commercial baker's yeast and the experimental breads were subjected to the qualitative characterization (weight loss, height, firmness, colour, volatile organic compounds, image and sensory analysis). The results obtained showed that protein content of grains and semolinas was higher in ancient rather than modern genotypes. Dry gluten ranged from 6.7% of the modern variety Simeto to 13.6% of the ancient genotype Scorsonera. Great differences were found for the yellow index which reached the highest value in Saragolla variety. The P/L and W ratios were significantly higher for the modern genotypes. On average, weight loss was about 14 g, while bread height varied significantly between the trials. Bread consistency varied between 12.6 and 31.3 N. Differences were observed for the yellow of the crumb (higher for modern genotypes) and for the redness of the crust (higher for ancient genotypes). The sensory evaluation displayed a high variability among the breads from the 10 ancient genotypes, while the control breads received scores closed to those of the modern genotypes. This study revealed that the modern durum wheat varieties showed a certain uniformity of behaviour, while the ancient genotypes exhibited a great variability of the final attributes of breads.

The Gluten Gene: Unlocking the Understanding of Gluten Sensitivity and Intolerance

Wheat flour is one of the most important food ingredients containing several essential nutrients including proteins. Gluten is one of the major protein components of wheat consisted of glutenin (encoded on chromosome 1) and gliadin (encoded on chromosome 1 and 6) and there are around hundred genes encoding it in wheat. Gluten proteins have the ability of eliciting the pathogenic immune responses and hypersensitivity reactions in susceptible individuals called “gluten-related disorders (GRDs)”, which include celiac disease (CD), wheat allergy (WA), and non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS). Currently removing gluten from the diet is the only effective treatment for mentioned GRDs and studies for the appropriate and alternative therapeutic approaches are ongoing. Accordingly, several genetic studies have focused on breeding wheat with low immunological properties through gene editing methods. The present review considers genetic characteristics of gluten protein components, focusing on their role in the incidence of gluten-related diseases, and genetic modifications conducted to produce wheat with less immunological properties.

Effect of cultivation system on quality changes in durum wheat grain and flour produced in North-Eastern Europe

Grain of the highest hardness was produced from durum wheat grown without the use of growth regulator, at the lowest sowing density (350 seeds m-2) and nitrogen fertilization dose of 80 kg ha-1. The highest values L* and b* were determined in the grain of wheat cultivated without additional agrotechnical measures (growth regulator and nitrogen fertilization). Study results, supported by correlation analysis, indicated that high-quality grain with desired flour quality parameters (level of: FER ≈ 64%; FPS ≈ 98%; L* ≈ 92) can be produced from spring durum wheat grown without the growth regulator and at 80 kg·ha-1 nitrogen fertilization. Additionally, this variant of applied cultivation system can reduce costs of durum wheat production and contamination of the natural environment.

Pro-Inflammatory Effect of Gliadins and Glutenins Extracted from Different Wheat Cultivars on an In Vitro 3D Intestinal Epithelium Model

There is a need to assess the relationship between improved rheological properties and the immunogenic potential of wheat proteins. The present study aimed to investigate the in vitro effects of total protein extracts from three modern and two landrace Triticum aestivum commercial flour mixes, with significant differences in gluten strength (GS), on cell lines. Cytotoxicity and innate immune responses induced by wheat proteins were investigated using Caco-2 monocultures, two dimensional (2D) Caco-2/U937 co-cultures, and three dimensional (3D) co-cultures simulating the intestinal mucosa with Caco-2 epithelial cells situated above an extra-cellular matrix containing U937 monocytes and L929 fibroblasts. Modern wheat proteins, with increased GS, significantly reduced Caco-2 cell proliferation and vitality in monoculture and 2D co-cultures than landrace proteins. Modern wheat proteins also augmented Caco-2 monolayer disruption and tight junction protein, occludin, redistribution in 3D co-cultures. Release of interleukin-8 into the cell medium and increased U937 monocyte migration in both 2D and 3D co-cultures were similarly apparent. Immuno-activation of migrating U937 cells was evidenced from cluster of differentiation 14 (CD14) staining and CD11b-related differentiation into macrophages. The modern wheat proteins, with gluten polymorphism relatedness and increased GS, were shown to be more cytotoxic and immunogenic than the landrace wheat proteins.

Prototype Gluten-Free Breads from Processed Durum Wheat: Use of Monovarietal Flours and Implications for Gluten Detoxification Strategies

In this investigation, we reported the production of prototype breads from the processed flours of three specific Triticum turgidum wheat genotypes that were selected in our previous investigation for their potential low toxic/immunogenic activity for celiac disease (CD) patients. The flours were subjected to sourdough fermentation with a mixture of selected Lactobacillus strains, and in presence of fungal endoproteases. The breads were characterized by R5 competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay in order to quantify the residual gluten, and the differential efficacy in gluten degradation was assessed. In particular, two of them were classified as gluten-free (<20 ppm) and very low-gluten content (<100 ppm) breads, respectively, whereas the third monovarietal prototype retained a gluten content that was well above the safety threshold prescribed for direct consumption by CD patients. In order to investigate such a genotype-dependent efficiency of the detoxification method applied, an advanced proteomic characterization by high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry was performed. Notably, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first proteomic investigation which benefitted, for protein identification, from the full sequencing of the Triticum turgidum ssp. durum genome. The differences of the proteins' primary structures affecting their susceptibility to hydrolysis were investigated. As a confirmation of the previous immunoassay-based results, two out of the three breads made with the processed flours presented an exhaustive degradation of the epitopic sequences that are relevant for CD immune stimulatory activity. The list of the detected epitopes was analyzed and critically discussed in light of their susceptibility to the detoxification strategy applied. Finally, in-vitro experiments of human gastroduodenal digestion were carried out in order to assess, in-silico, the toxicity risk of the prototype breads under investigation for direct consumption by CD patients. This approach allowed us to confirm the total degradation of the epitopic sequences upon gastro-duodenal digestion.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Breeding from 1891 to 2010 Contributed to Increasing Yield and Glutenin Contents but Decreasing Protein and Gliadin Contents

Epidemiologic studies suggest an increasing prevalence of celiac disease and non-celiac gluten/wheat sensitivity. With wheat proteins being the main triggers, changes in wheat protein composition are discussed as a potential cause. The goals of breeding toward increased yield and resistance might have inadvertently contributed to a higher immunostimulatory potential of modern wheat cultivars compared to old wheat cultivars. Therefore, agronomic characteristics, protein content, and gluten composition of 60 German winter wheat cultivars first registered between 1891 and 2010 grown in 3 years were analyzed. While plant height and spike density decreased over time, yield and harvest index increased. The protein and gliadin contents showed a decreasing trend, whereas glutenin contents increased, but there were no changes in albumin/globulin and gluten contents. Overall, the harvest year had a more significant effect on protein composition than the cultivar. At the protein level, we found no evidence to support an increased immunostimulatory potential of modern winter wheat.

N Partitioning between Gluten Fractions in a Set of Italian Durum Wheat Cultivars: Role of the Grain N Content

Grain protein content constitutes a key quality trait for durum wheat end-products and may also impact grain protein composition. A total of sixteen durum wheat cultivars were analyzed in a field trial during two seasons at two nitrogen (N) levels to evaluate whether and to what extent the variation in total grain N was associated with variation in the quantity of the various protein fractions and grain quality parameters. Genotypic variation in grain N content correlated with the variation in the content of all three protein fractions, although the strength of the correlation with gliadin and albumin-globulin was higher than that with glutenins. Genotypic variation in gliadin and glutenin content was more tightly correlated with the variation in the sulfur (S)-rich protein groups than with the S-poor protein groups and subunits. The variation in the percentage of unextractable polymeric proteins (UPP%) among genotypes was independent of their glutenin allelic composition. The significant genotypic differences in UPP% and in the ratios between protein groups and subunits were not influenced by the corresponding variation in grain N content. The final grain N content can only account for part of the variation in quality parameters and in the partitioning of total grain N between protein fractions since genotypic differences other than grain N content also contribute to these variations.

Relationship between Seed Morphological Traits and Ash and Mineral Distribution along the Kernel Using Debranning in Durum Wheats from Different Geographic Sites

Debranning was applied to durum wheat to the study the relationship between kernel shape and size, and ash and mineral distribution having implications for semolina yield. To this aim four durum wheat genotypes carried out over three environments were selected to determine the morphological and yield traits as well as the distribution along the kernel of the ash, macro- (Na, K, P, Ca, and Mg), and micro-elements (Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mo). A descendent ash gradient within the kernel reflects the decreases in the minerals that occurred during debranning. Perciasacchi with high seed weight (TKW) and greater thickness followed by Cappelli showed a more uniform distribution of ash content along the kernels. High r Pearson coefficient (p < 0.01) showed an inverse relationship between thickness and ash decay. Since thickness was strongly affected by the genotype, it could represent a useful trait for breeding programs to predict the milling quality.

From seed to bread: variation in quality in a set of old durum wheat cultivars

BACKGROUND

Old durum wheat varieties are being appreciated again because of their interesting genetic diversity and low fertilizer needs.

RESULTS

The agronomic and bread-making performances of 14 old Italian durum wheat varieties grown under two low nitrogen (N) inputs (46 and 86 kg ha^-1 ) were determined and the relationships among grain, semolina, dough and bread quality parameters were established. The old varieties yielded similarly to the check modern variety Svevo under both N levels. Increasing N fertilization from 46 to 86 kg ha^-1 did not increase grain yield or the mg of N in the grain, although grain protein percentage increased as a result of a decrease in grain weight and an increase in gliadin content. Despite the resulting decrease in the gluten index, dough and bread quality improved at the higher N rate, highlighting the influential role of protein percentage and gliadin in bread quality. The genotypic variation in grain protein percentage among old varieties was more strongly associated with glutenin than with gliadin content. Variation in the gluten index was high (4-54); indeed, it was the most variable semolina parameter, and proved to contribute the most to variation in bread quality. This variation was independent of the glutenin alleles (HMW 20, 20*, 7, 13+16, 6+8) and was linked to the quality of the grain in terms of grain weight and the associated mg of N per grain. Remarkably, two old varieties, namely Calabria and Cappelli, were able to produce both a good yield and high-quality bread.

CONCLUSION

Old Italian durum wheats continue to boast significant biodiversity and are worth exploring in low-input production systems. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Ancient wheats: beneficial effects on insulin resistance

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus are two conditions that commonly exist together in the context of the metabolic syndrome. Several scientific advances in understanding this association have identified insulin resistance as the key point in the pathogenesis of both diseases. The first line treatment suggested in the management of these diseases is represented by lifestyle changes and in particular the modification of alimentary regimen, with the transition to a healthy diet. In this context, several studies have focused their attention on the identification of food products with beneficial actions, like ancient wheat (AW). AW are defined as the early cereals that were domesticated in their places of origin in the "Fertile Crescent" of the Middle East, and played a central role as a main source of food for the early civilizations in that region. The present narrative review aims to provide a systematic overview of the state of the art on the effects of AW on insulin resistance.

Mapping Coeliac Toxic Motifs in the Prolamin Seed Storage Proteins of Barley, Rye, and Oats Using a Curated Sequence Database

Wheat gluten, and related prolamin proteins in rye, barley and oats cause the immune-mediated gluten intolerance syndrome, coeliac disease. Foods labelled as gluten-free which can be safely consumed by coeliac patients, must not contain gluten above a level of 20 mg/Kg. Current immunoassay methods for detection of gluten can give conflicting results and may underestimate levels of gluten in foods. Mass spectrometry methods have great potential as an orthogonal method, but require curated protein sequence databases to support method development. The GluPro database has been updated to include avenin-like sequences from bread wheat (n = 685; GluPro v1.1) and genes from the sequenced wheat genome (n = 699; GluPro v 1.2) and Triticum turgidum ssp durum (n = 210; GluPro v 2.1). Companion databases have been developed for prolamin sequences from barley (n = 64; GluPro v 3.0), rye (n = 41; GluPro v 4.0), and oats (n = 27; GluPro v 5.0) and combined to provide a complete cereal prolamin database, GluPro v 6.1 comprising 1,041 sequences. Analysis of the coeliac toxic motifs in the curated sequences showed that they were absent from the minor avenin-like proteins in bread and durum wheat and barley, unlike the related avenin proteins from oats. A comparison of prolamin proteins from the different cereal species also showed α- and γ-gliadins in bread and durum wheat, and the sulphur poor prolamins in all cereals had the highest density of coeliac toxic motifs. Analysis of ion-mobility mass spectrometry data for bread wheat (cvs Chinese Spring and Hereward) showed an increased number of identifications when using the GluPro v1.0, 1.1 and 1.2 databases compared to the limited number of verified sequences bread wheat sequences in reviewed UniProt. This family of databases will provide a basis for proteomic profiling of gluten proteins from all the gluten containing cereals and support identification of specific peptide markers for use in development of new methods for gluten quantitation based on coeliac toxic motifs found in all relevant cereal species.

Is the Technological Quality of Old Durum Wheat Cultivars Superior to That of Modern Ones When Exposed to Moderately High Temperatures during Grain Filling?

The growing interest in old durum wheat cultivars, due to enhanced consumer attention on healthy, traditional products and low-input agricultural systems, partly relies on their different quality characteristics compared to modern cultivars. Nine Italian durum wheat cultivars from different breeding periods were compared in two late-sown (January) field trials in order to subject their grain filling period to high temperatures similar to those expected in the future. Late sowing moved anthesis forward by about 10 days and increased the mean temperature during grain filling by 1.3 °C compared to that obtained when using the common sowing period of November–December. In these conditions, old cultivars were on average less productive than modern ones (2.36 vs. 3.54 tons ha⁻¹, respectively), had a higher protein percentage (13.8% vs. 11.1%), a lower gluten index (24.3% vs. 56.3%), and a lower alveographic W (baking strength) (64 vs. 100 J 10⁻⁴). The differences were partly associated to variations in the gliadins:glutenins ratio. It depended on the genotype whether the grain and semolina protein percentage and gluten strength compensated one another in terms of alveographic indices to give the dough a strength similar to that of the modern cultivars in the range of moderately high temperatures, which resulted from delayed sowing. Further studies aimed at exploring the genetic variability of quality traits in the large genetic pool represented by the several Italian old and intermediate durum wheat cultivars still available are therefore advisable.

Pathogenesis of Celiac Disease and Other Gluten Related Disorders in Wheat and Strategies for Mitigating Them

Wheat is a major cereal crop providing energy and nutrients to the billions of people around the world. Gluten is a structural protein in wheat, that is necessary for its dough making properties, but it is responsible for imparting certain intolerances among some individuals, which are part of this review. Most important among these intolerances is celiac disease, that is gluten triggered T-cell mediated autoimmune enteropathy and results in villous atrophy, inflammation and damage to intestinal lining in genetically liable individuals containing human leukocyte antigen DQ2/DQ8 molecules on antigen presenting cells. Celiac disease occurs due to presence of celiac disease eliciting epitopes in gluten, particularly highly immunogenic alpha-gliadins. Another gluten related disorder is non-celiac gluten-sensitivity in which innate immune-response occurs in patients along with gastrointestinal and non-gastrointestinal symptoms, that disappear upon removal of gluten from the diet. In wheat allergy, either IgE or non-IgE mediated immune response occurs in individuals after inhalation or ingestion of wheat. Following a life-long gluten-free diet by celiac disease and non-celiac gluten-sensitivity patients is very challenging as none of wheat cultivar or related species stands safe for consumption. Hence, different molecular biology, genetic engineering, breeding, microbial, enzymatic, and chemical strategies have been worked upon to reduce the celiac disease epitopes and the gluten content in wheat. Currently, only 8.4% of total population is affected by wheat-related issues, while rest of population remains safe and should not remove wheat from the diet, based on false media coverage.

Keratin Associations with Synthetic, Biosynthetic and Natural Polymers: An Extensive Review

Among the biopolymers from animal sources, keratin is one the most abundant, with a major contribution from side stream products from cattle, ovine and poultry industry, offering many opportunities to produce cost-effective and sustainable advanced materials. Although many reviews have discussed the application of keratin in polymer-based biomaterials, little attention has been paid to its potential in association with other polymer matrices. Thus, herein, we present an extensive literature review summarizing keratin's compatibility with other synthetic, biosynthetic and natural polymers, and its effect on the materials' final properties in a myriad of applications. First, we revise the historical context of keratin use, describe its structure, chemical toolset and methods of extraction, overview and differentiate keratins obtained from different sources, highlight the main areas where keratin associations have been applied, and describe the possibilities offered by its chemical toolset. Finally, we contextualize keratin's potential for addressing current issues in materials sciences, focusing on the effect of keratin when associated to other polymers' matrices from biomedical to engineering applications, and beyond.