Limited T cell response to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine among patients with cancer receiving different cancer treatments

Immune response of COVID-19 vaccines in solid cancer patients: A meta-analysis

Solid cancer patients, compared to their healthy counterparts, are at a greater risk of contracting and suffering from severe complications and poorer prognosis after COVID-19 infections. They also have different immune responses after doses of COVID-19 vaccination, but limited evidence is available to reveal the effectiveness and help to guide immunization programs for this subpopulation; MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, Cochrane Library databases, and clinicaltrials.gov were used to search literature. The pooled seroconversion rate was calculated using a random-effects model and reported with a 95% confidence interval (CI); The review includes 66 studies containing serological responses after COVID-19 vaccination in 13,050 solid cancer patients and 8550 healthy controls. The pooled seropositive rates after the first dose in patients with solid cancer and healthy controls are 55.2% (95% CI 45.9%-64.5% N = 18) and 90.2% (95% CI 80.9%-96.6% N = 13), respectively. The seropositive rates after the second dose in patients with solid cancer and healthy controls are 87.6% (95% CI 84.1%-90.7% N = 50) and 98.9% (95% CI 97.6%-99.7% N = 35), respectively. The seropositive rates after the third dose in patients with solid cancer and healthy controls are 91.4% (95% CI 85.4%-95.9% N = 21) and 99.8% (95% CI 98.1%-100.0% N = 4), respectively. Subgroup analysis finds that study sample size, timing of antibody testing, and vaccine type have influence on the results; Seroconversion rates after COVID-19 vaccination are significantly lower in patients with solid malignancies, especially after the first dose, then shrinking gradually after the following two vaccinations, indicating that subsequent doses or a booster dose should be considered for the effectiveness of this subpopulation.

Immune responses and clinical outcomes following the third dose of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA-BNT162b2 vaccine in advanced breast cancer patients receiving targeted therapies: a prospective study

Purpose

Metastatic breast cancer patients are the most prevalent oncology population with advanced disease facing COVID-19 pandemic. Immune responses after mRNA-based vaccination during treatment with CDK4/6 inhibitors or HER2-directed agents remain unclear. We conducted a prospective analysis to elucidate changes in antibody titers and lymphocyte counts following full course of mRNA-BNT162b2 (tozinameran) vaccination in recipients undergoing these targeted therapies.

Methods

Patients who had received a booster dosing and had been treated for at least 6 months were eligible. Antibody titers against SARS-CoV-2 spike protein were measured at four subsequent time points. Immunophenotyping of circulating lymphocytes was performed before the third dose of tozinameran and four weeks later to quantify the absolute counts of CD3+CD4+ T-helper cells, CD3+CD8+ T-cytotoxic cells, CD19+ B cells, and CD56+CD16+ NK cells. We also assessed the incidence of breakthrough infections and investigated whether immune changes affect time-to-treatment failure (TTF) after booster vaccination.

Results

The current analysis included 69 patients, of whom 38 (55%) and 31 (45%) were being treated with CDK4/6 inhibitors and HER2-targeted therapies, respectively. All participants received a third dose of tozinameran between September 23 and October 7, 2021. Multivariate analysis revealed that CDK4/6 inhibition predicted a significantly impaired humoral response after the booster dose. This detrimental effect was also evident for T-helper cell counts before the third immunization, but it disappeared in the subsequent evaluation. After a median follow-up of 22.3 months, we observed 19 (26%) cases of COVID-19 outbreaks, all experiencing favorable clinical outcomes. Univariate analysis showed a significant association between the onset of SARS-CoV-2 infections and the use of CDK4/6 inhibitors, as well as with an impaired antibody and T-helper cell response. Only the last two covariates remained independent predictors after multivariate testing. Dynamic variations in antibody titers and T-helper cell counts did not affect TTF in multivariate regression analysis.

Conclusions

Our results confirm that the immune response to tozinameran is impaired by CDK4/6 inhibitors, increasing the odds of breakthrough infections despite the third vaccine dose. Current evidence recommends maintaining efforts to provide booster immunizations to the most vulnerable cancer patients, including those with advanced breast cancer undergoing CDK4/6 inhibition.

COVID-19 Vaccination in Patients With Cancer and Patients Receiving HSCT or CAR-T Therapy: Immune Response, Real-World Effectiveness, and Implications for the Future

Patients with cancer demonstrate an increased vulnerability for infection and severe disease by SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19. Risk factors for severe COVID-19 include comorbidities, uncontrolled disease, and current line of treatment. Although COVID-19 vaccines have afforded some level of protection against infection and severe disease among patients with solid tumors and hematologic malignancies, decreased immunogenicity and real-world effectiveness have been observed among this population compared with healthy individuals. Characterizing and understanding the immune response to increasing doses or differing schedules of COVID-19 vaccines among patients with cancer is important to inform clinical and public health practices. In this article, we review SARS-CoV-2 susceptibility and immune responses to COVID-19 vaccination in patients with solid tumors, hematologic malignancies, and those receiving hematopoietic stem cell transplant or chimeric-antigen receptor T-cell therapy.

Comparative Assessment of the Kinetics of Cellular and Humoral Immune Responses to COVID-19 Vaccination in Cancer Patients

OBJECTIVE

The kinetics of immune responses to various SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in cancer patients were investigated.

METHODS

In total, 57 cancer patients who received BNT162b2-RNA or BBIBP-CorV vaccines were enrolled. Cellular and humoral immunity were assessed at three-time points, before the first vaccine dose and 14-21 days after the first and second doses. Chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay was used to evaluate SARS-CoV-2 anti-spike IgG response, and QuantiFERON^® SARS-CoV-2 kit assessed T-cell response.

RESULTS

Data showed that cancer patients' CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell-median IFN-γ secretion of SARS-CoV-2 antigens increased after the first and second vaccine doses (p = 0.027 and p = 0.042). BNT162b2 vaccinees had significantly higher IFN-γ levels to CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell epitopes than BBIBP-CorV vaccinees (p = 0.028). There was a positive correlation between IgG antibody titer and T cell response regardless of vaccine type (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This study is one of the first to investigate cellular and humoral immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 immunization in cancer patients on active therapy after each vaccine dose. COVID-19 immunizations helped cancer patients develop an effective immune response. Understanding the cellular and humoral immune response to COVID-19 in cancer patients undergoing active treatment is necessary to improve vaccines and avoid future SARS pandemics.

Humoral and Cellular Immune Responses against SARS-CoV-2 after Third Dose BNT162b2 following Double-Dose Vaccination with BNT162b2 versus ChAdOx1 in Patients with Cancer

PURPOSE

Patients with cancer display reduced humoral responses after double-dose COVID-19 vaccination, whereas their cellular response is more comparable with that in healthy individuals. Recent studies demonstrated that a third vaccination dose boosts these immune responses, both in healthy people and patients with cancer. Because of the availability of many different COVID-19 vaccines, many people have been boosted with a different vaccine from the one used for double-dose vaccination. Data on such alternative vaccination schedules are scarce. This prospective study compares a third dose of BNT162b2 after double-dose BNT162b2 (homologous) versus ChAdOx1 (heterologous) vaccination in patients with cancer.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

A total of 442 subjects (315 patients and 127 healthy) received a third dose of BNT162b2 (230 homologous vs. 212 heterologous). Vaccine-induced adverse events (AE) were captured up to 7 days after vaccination. Humoral immunity was assessed by SARS-CoV-2 anti-S1 IgG antibody levels and SARS-CoV-2 50% neutralization titers (NT50) against Wuhan and BA.1 Omicron strains. Cellular immunity was examined by analyzing CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses against SARS-CoV-2-specific S1 and S2 peptides.

RESULTS

Local AEs were more common after heterologous boosting. SARS-CoV-2 anti-S1 IgG antibody levels did not differ significantly between homologous and heterologous boosted subjects [GMT 1,755.90 BAU/mL (95% CI, 1,276.95-2,414.48) vs. 1,495.82 BAU/mL (95% CI, 1,131.48-1,977.46)]. However, homologous-boosted subjects show significantly higher NT50 values against BA.1 Omicron. Subjects receiving heterologous boosting demonstrated increased spike-specific CD8+ T cells, including higher IFNγ and TNFα levels.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with cancer who received double-dose ChAdOx1, a third heterologous dose of BNT162b2 was able to close the gap in antibody response.

Predictive model for BNT162b2 vaccine response in cancer patients based on blood cytokines and growth factors

Background

Patients with cancer, especially hematological cancer, are at increased risk for breakthrough COVID-19 infection. So far, a predictive biomarker that can assess compromised vaccine-induced anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunity in cancer patients has not been proposed.

Methods

We employed machine learning approaches to identify a biomarker signature based on blood cytokines, chemokines, and immune- and non-immune-related growth factors linked to vaccine immunogenicity in 199 cancer patients receiving the BNT162b2 vaccine.

Results

C-reactive protein (general marker of inflammation), interleukin (IL)-15 (a pro-inflammatory cytokine), IL-18 (interferon-gamma inducing factor), and placental growth factor (an angiogenic cytokine) correctly classified patients with a diminished vaccine response assessed at day 49 with >80% accuracy. Amongst these, CRP showed the highest predictive value for poor response to vaccine administration. Importantly, this unique signature of vaccine response was present at different studied timepoints both before and after vaccination and was not majorly affected by different anti-cancer treatments.

Conclusion

We propose a blood-based signature of cytokines and growth factors that can be employed in identifying cancer patients at persistent high risk of COVID-19 despite vaccination with BNT162b2. Our data also suggest that such a signature may reflect the inherent immunological constitution of some cancer patients who are refractive to immunotherapy.

Seroconversion rate after COVID-19 vaccination in patients with solid cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Patients with solid cancer have an increased risk of severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and associated mortality than the general population. This meta-analysis aimed to investigate the currently available evidence about the efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines in patients with solid cancer. We included prospective studies comparing the immunogenicity and efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines between patients with solid cancer and healthy individuals. Relative risks of seroconversion after the first and second dose of a COVID-19 vaccine were separately pooled with the use of random effects meta-analysis. Thirty studies with 11,245 subjects met the inclusion criteria. After first vaccine dose, the pooled RR of seroconversion in patients with solid cancer vs healthy individuals was 0.54 (95% CI 0.38-0.78, I² = 94%). After a second dose, the pooled RR of seroconversion in patients with solid cancer vs healthy controls was 0.87 (0.86-0.88, I² = 87%). Our review suggests that, compared with healthy individuals, COVID-19 vaccines show favorable immunogenicity and efficacy in patients with solid cancer. A second dose is associated with significantly improved seroconversion, although it is slightly lower in patients with solid cancer compared with healthy individuals.

Cancer Patients and the COVID-19 Vaccines: Considerations and Challenges

Few guidelines exist for COVID-19 vaccination amongst cancer patients, fostering uncertainty regarding the immunogenicity, safety, and effects of cancer therapies on vaccination, which this review aims to address. A literature review was conducted to include the latest articles covering the immunogenicity and safety of COVID-19 vaccination in patients with solid and hematologic cancers receiving various treatments. Lower seropositivity following vaccination was associated with malignancy (compared to the general population), and hematologic malignancy (compared to solid cancers). Patients receiving active cancer therapy (unspecified), chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunosuppressants generally demonstrated lower seropositivity compared to healthy controls; though checkpoint inhibition, endocrine therapy, and cyclin dependent kinase inhibition did not appear to affect seropositivity. Vaccination appeared safe and well-tolerated in patients with current or past cancer and those undergoing treatment. Adverse events were comparable to the general population, but inflammatory lymphadenopathy following vaccination was commonly reported and may be mistaken for malignant etiology. Additionally, radiation recall phenomenon was sporadically reported in patients who had received radiotherapy. Overall, while seropositivity rates were decreased, cancer patients showed capacity to generate safe and effective immune responses to COVID-19 vaccination, thus vaccination should be encouraged and hesitancy should be addressed in this population.

Impact of SARS-CoV-2-specific memory B cells on the immune response after mRNA-based Comirnaty vaccine in seronegative health care workers

Purpose

To analyze the impact of SARS-COV-2-specific memory B cells (MBC) on the immune response after two doses of mRNA-based Comirnaty COVID-19 vaccine in seronegative health care workers. This study is seeking a rationale for boosting vaccines.

Methods

Longitudinal study including 31 seronegative health care workers with undetectable specific MBCs (IgG⁻MBC⁻ group), 24 seronegative with detectable specific MBCs (IgG⁻MBC⁺ group), and 24 seropositive with detectable specific MBCs (IgG⁺MBC⁺ group). The level of antibodies that inhibit ACE2-RBD interaction, and anti-Spike IgG, IgA, and IgM antibodies was quantified by ELISA. In addition, specific memory B and T cells were quantified by flow cytometry.

Results

The level of specific MBCs, and isotypes, in the IgG⁻MBC⁻ group was lower compared to that found in IgG⁻MBC⁺ (p = 0.0001) and IgG⁺MBC⁺ (p < 0.0001) groups, respectively. ACE2-RBD neutralizing antibodies and anti-S IgG antibodies were at lower levels in the IgG⁻MBC⁻group after the vaccine. Specific MBCs directly correlated with specific CD4⁺ T cells (although not significant, p = 0.065), while no correlation was found with specific CD8⁺ T cells (p = 0.156) after the vaccine. In parallel, ACE2-RBD neutralizing antibodies only positively correlated with specific CD4⁺ T cells (p = 0.034).

Conclusion

IgG⁻MBC⁻ individuals showed the worst humoral and cellular responses, both in frequency and magnitude, after vaccination. Individuals whose antibodies wane and become undetectable after a given period of time post vaccination and show no specific MBCs are less protected and hence are good candidates for boosting vaccine. On the other hand, seronegative individuals with specific MBC showed faster and higher responses compared to the IgG⁻MBC⁻ group.

Immune Profiling Uncovers Memory T-Cell Responses with a Th17 Signature in Cancer Patients with Previous SARS CoV-2 Infection Followed by mRNA Vaccination

Simple Summary

Cancer patients are considered a high-risk group for infectious diseases including COVID-19. The protective effects of vaccination are unclear in oncologic patients, as well as their duration. In this study antibody, T-cell and myeloid cell immunity were evaluated in three cohorts of healthy donors and oncologic patients, including those infected with SARS-CoV-2, BNT162b2-vaccinated (mRNA vaccine), and with previous COVID-19 and subsequently vaccinated. We concluded that vaccination was a poor inductor of cellular immunity towards the S protein. Memory T-cells were only detected in patients and healthy donors with COVID-19 previous to vaccination but with an accentuated Th17 inflammatory profile, together with elevated numbers of circulating neutrophils.

Abstract

It is unclear whether patients with cancer present inherently impaired responses to COVID-19 and vaccination due to their treatments, neoplastic diseases or both. To address this question, immune profiling was performed in three cohorts of healthy donors and oncologic patients: infected with SARS-CoV-2, BNT162b2-vaccinated, and with previous COVID-19 disease and subsequently vaccinated. Cancer patients showed good antibody responses to vaccination, but poor induction of T-cell responses towards the S protein when compared to infection. Following natural infection, the major targets for T-cells were the SARS-CoV-2 structural proteins M and S, but not the N protein. Similar to antibody titers, the T-cell responses quickly decayed after six months post-vaccination. Significant memory T-cell expansion was observed in vaccinated donors only if previously diagnosed with COVID-19 before undergoing vaccination. Oncologic patients with previous COVID-19 followed by vaccination exhibited potent IL-17+ CD4 and CD8 T-cell responses and elevated numbers of circulating neutrophils in peripheral blood.

Safety and immunogenicity of inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in people with gastrointestinal cancer

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of inactivated COVID-19 vaccines in patients with gastrointestinal cancer (GI) cancer. The role of memory B cells (MBCs) in the humoral response to COVID-19 vaccination was also investigated.

METHODS

In this prospective observational study, GI cancer patients and healthy individuals who had received 2 doses of inactivated COVID-19 vaccines were included. The data regarding adverse effects, serum anti-receptor binding domain (RBD)-IgG, neutralizing antibodies (NAbs), and frequencies of MBCs were collected prospectively.

RESULTS

The inactivated COVID-19 vaccines were safe and well tolerated. Serum anti-RBG-IgG and NAbs were lower for cancer patients. Old age, high ASA score, and receiving active chemotherapy were risk factors for lower antibody titers. The frequencies of activated and resting MBCs decreased in (17.45% vs 38.11%, P = 0.002; 16.98% vs 34.13%, P = 0.023), while the frequencies of intermediate and atypical MBCs increased in cancer patients (40.06% vs 19.87%, P = 0.010; 25.47% vs 16.61%, P = 0.025). The serum antibody titer decreased gradually during follow-up but increased when a booster vaccine was given.

CONCLUSION

The inactivated COVID-19 vaccines were well tolerated in patients with GI cancer but with lower immunogenicity. The subpopulations of MBCs were disordered in cancer patients, and a booster vaccine may be prioritized for them.

Humoral and cellular responses to mRNA-based COVID-19 booster vaccinations in patients with solid neoplasms under active treatment

Background

Patients with cancer are at high risk for severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection. Knowledge regarding the efficacy of the messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines in actively treated cancer patients is limited as they had been excluded from the pivotal studies of these vaccines. We evaluated humoral and cellular immune responses in cancer patients after double vaccination and a booster dose and identified disease- and treatment-related factors associated with a reduced immune response. We also documented the number and outcome of breakthrough infections.

Patients and methods

Patients with metastatic solid malignancies undergoing active treatment were included if they had received two doses of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 mRNA vaccines BNT162b2 or mRNA-1273 and a booster dose. Other causes of immunosuppression and previous COVID-19 infections (positive anti-nucleocapsid titers) were exclusion criteria. Anti-spike antibodies, neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) and T-cell responses were assessed about 6 months after the two-dose vaccination and 4 weeks after the booster.

Results

Fifty-one patients had pre-booster and 46 post-booster measurements. Anti-spike titers after two vaccine doses were highly variable and significantly lower in older patients, during treatment with chemotherapy compared to targeted and endocrine treatments and in patients with low CD4+ or CD19+ cell counts. The booster dose led to a significant increase in anti-spike antibodies and nAbs, achieving almost uniformly high titers, irrespective of baseline and treatment factors. The cellular immune response was also significantly increased by the booster, however generally more stable and not influenced by baseline factors and treatment type. Seventeen patients (33%) experienced breakthrough infections, but none required hospital care or died from COVID-19.

Conclusions

An mRNA vaccine booster dose is able to increase humoral and cellular immune responses and to overcome the immunosuppressive influence of baseline and treatment factors in cancer patients. Breakthrough infections were uniformly mild in this vaccinated high-risk population.

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We provide data on humoral and cellular immunity after SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination in actively treated cancer patients.

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We found highly variable anti-S titers after two doses; titers were influenced by several baseline and treatment factors.

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The booster achieved uniformly higher anti-S titers; the influence of baseline factors could be overcome by the booster.

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Spike-specific T-cell immunity was more stable and not influenced by baseline factors.

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Even though many breakthrough infections were recorded during the Omicron wave, they were uniformly mild.

Adverse drug reactions to the three doses of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-COV-2) mRNA-1273 vaccine in a cohort of cancer patients under active treatment of a tertiary hospital in Madrid, Spain

Background: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccines efficacy and safety have been tested in phase 3 studies in which cancer patients were not included or were underrepresented. Methods: The objective of this study is to evaluate the safety profile of the mRNA-1273 vaccine across cancer patients and its relationship to patients' demographics. We selected from our records all 18-years or older solid cancer patients under active treatment vaccinated with the complete three-dose schedule mRNA-1273 vaccine whose adverse drug reactions (ADRs)  after each dose were recorded. Medical records were reviewed retrospectively to collect data between April 19, 2021, and December 31, 2021. Patients with documented previous infection by SARS-Cov-2 were excluded. Results: A total of 93 patients met the inclusion criteria. Local ADRs were reported more frequently after the first and second dose than after the third (41.9%, 43% and 31.1% of the patients respectively), while systemic ADRs followed the opposite pattern (16.1%, 34.4% and 52.6% of the patients respectively). We found a statistically significant association between sex and systemic adverse reactions after the third dose, p < 0.001 and between systemic adverse reactions after the second dose and systemic adverse reactions after the third dose, p = 0.001 A significant linear trend, p = 0.012, with a higher Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) score associated with a lower proportion of patients suffering from systemic side effects was found. Women had 5.79 times higher odds to exhibit systemic ADRs after the third dose (p=0.01) compared to males. Increasing age was associated with a decreased likelihood of exhibiting ADRs (p=0.016). Conclusion: The mRNA-1273 vaccine shows a tolerable safety profile. The likelihood of ADRs appears to be associated with gender and age. Its association with ECOG scores is less evident. Further studies are needed to elucidate this data in cancer patients.

Immunity after COVID-19 Recovery and Vaccination: Similarities and Differences

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is associated with a robust immune response. The development of systemic inflammation leads to a hyperinflammatory state due to cytokine release syndrome during severe COVID-19. The emergence of many new SARS-CoV-2 variants across the world deteriorates the protective antiviral immunity induced after infection or vaccination. The innate immune response to SARS-CoV-2 is crucial for determining the fate of COVID-19 symptomatology. T cell-mediated immunity is the main factor of the antiviral immune response; moreover, SARS-CoV-2 infection initiates a rapid B-cell response. In this paper, we present the current state of knowledge on immunity after COVID-19 infection and vaccination. We discuss the mechanisms of immune response to various types of vaccines (nucleoside-modified, adenovirus-vectored, inactivated virus vaccines and recombinant protein adjuvanted formulations). This includes specific aspects of vaccination in selected patient populations with altered immune activity (the elderly, children, pregnant women, solid organ transplant recipients, patients with systemic rheumatic diseases or malignancies). We also present diagnostic and research tools available to study the anti-SARS-CoV-2 cellular and humoral immune responses.