New indolylarylsulfone non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors show low nanomolar inhibition of single and double HIV-1 mutant strains

Deciphering the enigmas of non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs): A medicinal chemistry expedition towards combating HIV drug resistance

The pivotal involvement of reverse transcriptase activity in the pathogenesis of the progressive HIV virus has stimulated gradual advancements in drug discovery initiatives spanning three decades. Consequently, nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) have emerged as a preeminent category of therapeutic agents for HIV management. Academic institutions and pharmaceutical companies have developed numerous NNRTIs, an essential component of antiretroviral therapy. Six NNRTIs have received Food and Drug Administration approval and are widely used in clinical practice, significantly improving the quality of HIV patients. However, the rapid emergence of drug resistance has limited the effectiveness of these medications, underscoring the necessity for perpetual research and development of novel therapeutic alternatives. To supplement the existing literatures on NNRTIs, a comprehensive review has been compiled to synthesize this extensive dataset into a comprehensible format for the medicinal chemistry community. In this review, a thorough investigation and meticulous analysis were conducted on the progressions achieved in NNRTIs within the past 8 years (2016-2023), and the experiences and insights gained in the development of inhibitors with varying chemical structures were also summarized. The provision of a crucial point of reference for the development of wide-ranging anti-HIV medications is anticipated.

Targeting eEF1A reprograms translation and uncovers broad-spectrum antivirals against cap or m6A protein synthesis routes

Plitidepsin is an antitumoral compound safe for treating COVID-19 that targets the translation elongation factor eEF1A. Here we detect that plitidepsin decreases de novo cap-dependent translation of SARS-CoV-2 and non-viral RNAs but affects less than 13% of the host proteome, thus preserving cellular viability. In response to plitidepsin, cells upregulate EIF2AK3 and proteins that reduce translation, but also proteins that support proteostasis via ribosome synthesis and cap-independent translation by eIF4G2 and IGF2BP2. While plitidepsin inhibits cap- or internal ribosome entry sites (IRES)-mediated translation, its impact on N6-methyladenosine (m6A) translation is limited. In agreement, plitidepsin blocks members of Coronaviridae, Flaviviridae, Pneumoviridae and Herpesviridae families. Yet, it fails to inhibit retroviruses that exploit m6A synthesis routes and are blocked by drugs targeting IGF2BP2 m6A reader. By deciphering the molecular fingerprint of cells treated with therapies targeting translation we identify a rational approach to select broad-spectrum antivirals with potential to counteract future pandemic viruses.

Recent report on indoles as a privileged anti-viral scaffold in drug discovery

In recent years, viral infections such as COVID-19, Zika virus, Nipah virus, Ebola, Influenza, Monkeypox, and Dengue have substantially impacted global health. These outbreaks have led to heightened global health initiatives and collaborative efforts to address and mitigate these significant threats effectively. Thus, developing antiviral treatments and research in this field has become highly important. Heterocycles, particularly indole motifs, have been a valuable resource in drug discovery, as they can be used as treatments or inspire the synthesis of new potent candidates. Indole-containing drugs, such as enfuvirtide (T-20), arbidol, and delavirdine, have demonstrated significant efficacy in treating viral diseases. This review aims to comprehensively assess the latest research and developments in novel indoles as potential scaffolds for antiviral activity. We have compiled detailed information about indoles as potential antivirals by conducting a thorough literature survey from the past ten years. The review includes discussions on synthetic protocols, inhibitory concentrations, SAR study, and computational study. This review shall identify new antiviral indoles that may help to combat new viral threats in the future.

The latest developments in the design and discovery of non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) for the treatment of HIV

INTRODUCTION

This review encapsulates the recent strides in the development of non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) for HIV treatment, focusing on the novel structural designs that promise to overcome limitations of existing therapies, such as drug resistance and toxicity.

AREAS COVERED

We underscore the application of computational chemistry and structure-based drug design in refining NNRTIs with enhanced potency and safety.

EXPERT OPINION

Highlighting the emergence of diverse chemical scaffolds like diarylpyrimidines, indoles, DABOs and HEPTs, the review reveals compounds with nanomolar efficacy and improved pharmacokinetics. The integration of artificial intelligence in drug discovery is poised to accelerate the evolution of NNRTIs, laying the foundation for addressing drug resistance in the era of anti-HIV therapy through innovative designs and multi-target strategies.

Recent Advances in Nitrogen-Containing Heterocyclic Scaffolds as Antiviral Agents

This study aims to provide a thorough analysis of nitrogen-containing heterocycles, focusing on their therapeutic implications for the development of targeted and effective antiviral drugs. To better understand how nitrogen-containing heterocycles can be used to create antiviral drugs, this review adopts a systematic literature review strategy to compile and analyze pertinent research studies. It combines information from various fields to understand better the compounds' mode of action and their therapeutic potential. This review paper summarizes data from multiple sources to highlight the promising potential of heterocycles containing nitrogen as promising possibilities for future antiviral treatments. The capacity to engage selectively and modulate critical pathways bodes well for their use in developing new viral therapies. In conclusion, nitrogen-containing heterocycles are shown to be of utmost importance in the field of medicinal chemistry, as emphasized by the review paper. It emphasizes the central importance of chemical insights and pharmacological potential in developing novel and effective antiviral medicines by bringing them together.

(2,4-Di-chloro-benzyl-idene)[2-(1H-indol-3-yl)eth-yl]amine

In the title compound, C17H14Cl2N2, the mol-ecule exists in an E configuration with respect to the C=N bond of the Schiff base fragment. The dihedral angle between the indole ring system and the benzene ring is 80.86 (12)°. In the crystal, mol-ecules are connected by N-H⋯N hydrogen bonds, generating a C(7) chain extending along the a-axis direction. No aromatic π-π stacking occurs but weak C-H⋯π inter-actions are observed.

N-Phenyl-1-(phenylsulfonyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-3-amine as a New Class of HIV-1 Non-nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has revolutionized human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) healthcare, turning it from a terminal to a potentially chronic disease, although some patients can develop severe comorbidities. These include neurological complications, such as HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND), which result in cognitive and/or motor function symptoms. We now describe the discovery, synthesis, and evaluation of a new class of N-phenyl-1-(phenylsulfonyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-3-amine HIV-1 non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTI) aimed at avoiding HAND. The most promising molecule, 12126065, exhibited antiviral activity against wild-type HIV-1 in TZM cells (EC50 = 0.24 nM) with low in vitro cytotoxicity (CC50 = 4.8 μM) as well as retained activity against clinically relevant HIV mutants. 12126065 also demonstrated no in vivo acute or subacute toxicity, good in vivo brain penetration, and minimal neurotoxicity in mouse neurons up to 10 μM, with a 50% toxicity concentration (TC50) of >100 μM, well below its EC50.

Pharmacological Inhibition of IKK to Tackle Latency and Hyperinflammation in Chronic HIV-1 Infection

HIV latent infection may be associated with disrupted viral RNA sensing, interferon (IFN) signaling, and/or IFN stimulating genes (ISG) activation. Here, we evaluated the use of compounds selectively targeting at the inhibitor of nuclear factor-κB (IκB) kinase (IKK) complex subunits and related kinases (TBK1) as a novel pathway to reverse HIV-1 latency in latently infected non-clonal lymphoid and myeloid cell in vitro models. IKK inhibitors (IKKis) triggered up to a 1.8-fold increase in HIV reactivation in both, myeloid and lymphoid cell models. The best-in-class IKKis, targeting TBK-1 (MRT67307) and IKKβ (TCPA-1) respectively, were also able to significantly induce viral reactivation in CD4+ T cells from people living with HIV (PLWH) ex vivo. More importantly, although none of the compounds tested showed antiviral activity, the combination of the distinct IKKis with ART did not affect the latency reactivation nor blockade of HIV infection by ART. Finally, as expected, IKKis did not upregulate cell activation markers in primary lymphocytes and innate immune signaling was blocked, resulting in downregulation of inflammatory cytokines. Overall, our results support a dual role of IKKis as immune modulators being able to tackle the HIV latent reservoir in lymphoid and myeloid cellular models and putatively control the hyperinflammatory responses in chronic HIV-1 infection.

Crystal structure of N-(1H-indol-2-yl-methyl-idene)-4-meth-oxy-aniline

The mol-ecule of the title compound, C16H14N2O, contains an essentially planar indole ring system and a phenyl ring. In the crystal, the mol-ecules are linked by a weak inter-molecular C-H⋯O hydrogen bond and C-H⋯π inter-actions, forming a one-dimensional column structure along the b-axis direction. These columns are linked by other C-H⋯π inter-actions, forming a two-dimensional network structure.

CRISPR/Cas9 Ablation of Integrated HIV-1 Accumulates Proviral DNA Circles with Reformed Long Terminal Repeats

Gene editing may be used to excise the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) provirus from the host cell genome, possibly eradicating the infection. Here, using cells acutely or latently infected by HIV-1 and treated with long terminal repeat (LTR)-targeting CRISPR/Cas9, we show that the excised HIV-1 provirus persists for a few weeks and may rearrange in circular molecules. Although circular proviral DNA is naturally formed during HIV-1 replication, we observed that gene editing might increase proviral DNA circles with restored LTRs. These extrachromosomal elements were recovered and probed for residual activity through their transfection in uninfected cells. We discovered that they can be transcriptionally active in the presence of Tat and Rev. Although confirming that gene editing is a powerful tool to eradicate HIV-1 infection, this work highlights that, to achieve this goal, the LTRs must be cleaved in several pieces to avoid residual activity and minimize the risk of reintegration in the context of genomic instability, possibly caused by the off-target activity of Cas9. IMPORTANCE The excision of HIV-1 provirus from the host cell genome has proven feasible in vitro and, to some extent, in vivo. Among the different approaches, CRISPR/Cas9 is the most promising tool for gene editing. The present study underlines the remarkable effectiveness of CRISPR/Cas9 in removing the HIV-1 provirus from infected cells and investigates the fate of the excised HIV-1 genome. This study demonstrates that the free provirus may persist in the cell after editing and in appropriate circumstances may reactivate. As an episome, it might be transcriptionally active, especially in the presence of Tat and Rev. The persistence of the HIV-1 episome was strongly decreased by gene editing with multiple targets. Although gene editing has the potential to eradicate HIV-1 infection, this work highlights a potential issue that warrants further investigation.

Druggability modification strategies of the diarylpyrimidine-type non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors

Drug discovery of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a hot field in medicinal chemistry community for many years. The diarylpyrimidines (DAPYs) are the second-generation non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) targeting reverse transcriptase, playing a great irreplaceable role in HIV transcriptional therapy. However, fast-growing drug-resistant mutations as nonnegligible challenge are still unpredictably appeared in the clinical practice, leading to deactivate or reduce the existing drugs. In the last 20 years, more and more novel DAPY derivatives have developed with the purpose to counter the mutants. Nevertheless, most of them have dissatisfactory pharmacokinetics (PK) or poor antiviral activity toward resistant mutant strains. In this article, we will analyze the NNRTI derivatives with promising druggability, and summarize a series of druggability modification strategies to improve the antiviral activity, reduce toxicity and improve the PK properties in recent years. The prospects of DAPYs and the directions for future efforts will be discussed.