Clinical radiotherapy application of N-vinylpyrrolidone-containing 3D polymer gel dosimeters with remote external MR-reading

Enhancement of the dosimetric properties of N-vinyl caprolactam polymer gel dosimeter for clinical practice

In this study, the impact of Lithium Chloride inorganic salt sensitizer on the performance of N-vinyl caprolactam polymer-gel dosimeter was evaluated in terms of dose-response combined with spin-spin relaxation rate (R2) obtained from nuclear magnetic resonance relaxometry technique. The irradiation experiments were conducted using a medical linear accelerator, and the improved polymer gel dosimeters were exposed to various doses, photon beam energies, and dose rates. The signal development of the dosimeters was analyzed using a 0.5 T nuclear magnetic resonance instrument. The dose response of the improved gel at different concentration of co-monomers and at different types of gelatins was investigated. Results showed that the R2 sensitivity of the dosimeter was improved with an increase in Lithium Chloride concentration. With 6 % Lithium Chloride, the sensitivity was improved by more than one and half to two times in the linear dose response rang of (0-10 Gy). Furthermore, no significant impact was seen from varying dose rates and photon energy with the improved dosimeter, and R2 was not affected by changing the irradiation temperature from 10 to 30 °C. Additionally, the dose-response and hence R2 data decreased with increasing scanning temperature and the response was stable for up to five days after irradiation. The polymer gel dosimetry accuracy was estimated by calculating the overall uncertainty and found to be 4.06 % (2σ, 95 % confidence level).

Clinical applicability of Linac-integrated CBCT based NIPAM 3D dosimetry: a dual-institutional investigation

Objective.To develop and benchmark a novel 3D dose verification technique consisting of polymer gel dosimetry (PGD) with cone-beam-CT (CBCT) readout through a two-institution study. The technique has potential for wide and robust applicability through reliance on CBCT readout.Approach. Three treatment plans (3-field, TG119-C-shape spine, 4-target SRS) were created by two independent institutions (Institutions A and B). A Varian Truebeam linear accelerator was used to deliver the plans to NIPAM polymer gel dosimeters produced at both institutions using an identical approach. For readout, a slow CBCT scan mode was used to acquire pre- and post-irradiation images of the gel (1 mm slice thickness). Independent gel analysis tools were used to process the PGD images (A: VistaAce software, B: in-house MATLAB code). Comparing planned and measured doses, the analysis involved a combination of 1D line profiles, 2D contour plots, and 3D global gamma maps (criteria ranging between 2%1 mm and 5%2 mm, with a 10% dose threshold).Main results. For all gamma criteria tested, the 3D gamma pass rates were all above 90% for 3-field and 88% for the SRS plan. For the C-shape spine plan, we benchmarked our 2% 2 mm result against previously published work using film analysis (93.4%). For 2%2 mm, 99.4% (Institution A data), and 89.7% (Institution B data) were obtained based on VistaAce software analysis, 83.7% (Institution A data), and 82.9% (Institution B data) based on MATLAB.Significance. The benchmark data demonstrate that when two institutions follow the same rigorous procedures gamma passing rates up to 99%, for 2%2 mm criteria can be achieved for substantively different treatment plans. The use of different software and calibration techniques may have contributed to the variation in the 3D gamma results. By sharing the data across institutions, we observe the gamma passing rate is more consistent within each pipeline, indicating the need for standardized analysis methods.

Validation of complex radiotherapy techniques using polymer gel dosimetry

Modern radiotherapy delivers highly conformal dose distributions to irregularly shaped target volumes while sparing the surrounding normal tissue. Due to the complex planning and delivery techniques, dose verification and validation of the whole treatment workflow by end-to-end tests became much more important and polymer gel dosimeters are one of the few possibilities to capture the delivered dose distribution in 3D. The basic principles and formulations of gel dosimetry and its evaluation methods are described and the available studies validating device-specific geometrical parameters as well as the dose delivery by advanced radiotherapy techniques, such as 3D-CRT/IMRT and stereotactic radiosurgery treatments, the treatment of moving targets, online-adaptive magnetic resonance-guided radiotherapy as well as proton and ion beam treatments, are reviewed. The present status and limitations as well as future challenges of polymer gel dosimetry for the validation of complex radiotherapy techniques are discussed.

An investigation into the dose rate and photon energy dependence of the GENA gel dosimeter in the MeV range

PURPOSE

In the current study, the energy and dose rate dependence of a new genipin-based gel dosimeter, named GENA gel dosimeter, were investigated.

METHODS

Prepared gel dosimeters exposed using a Varian clinical linac. Beam qualities of 6 and 18 MV were applied to investigate the GENA gel dosimeter's energy dependence. Furthermore, the gel dosimeters were exposed to 50, 100, 200, and 350 cGy/min dose rates, ranging from 0 to 8 Gy. The irradiated gel dosimeters were read out using a double beam UV-Visible spectrophotometer. The absorbance peak (AP) and area under spectrum (AUS) were evaluated.

RESULTS

Absorbance-dose sensitivities of (8.0 ± 0.18) × 10^-3 cm^-1Gy^-1 and (7.8 ± 0.15) × 10^-3 cm^-1Gy^-1 were obtained for GENA gel dosimeter for 6 and 18 MV beam qualities, respectively. Results specified no significant difference (p > 0.05) between the GENA gel dosimeter's sensitivities irradiated using the two energies mentioned above. For the mentioned dose rates, AP-dose sensitivities of (8.2 ± 0.22) × 10^-3, (8.1 ± 0.21) × 10^-3, (8.1 ± 0.2) × 10^-3 and (8.0 ± 0.18) × 10^-3 cm^-1Gy^-1 were obtained, respectively. Results showed no significant difference (p > 0.05) between the GENA gel dosimeter's sensitivities for the investigated dose rates and energies. In addition, results revealed that when the incident photon energy and dose rate changed, there were no significant differences (p > 0.05) between the GENA gel dosimeter's dose resolution values.

CONCLUSIONS

It is concluded that the response of the GENA gel dosimeter is not dependent on the energy and dose rate (p > 0.05) within the studied energy and dose rate ranges.

Verification of dose distribution in high dose-rate brachytherapy for cervical cancer using a normoxic N-vinylpyrrolidone polymer gel dosimeter

The polymer gel dosimeter has been proposed for use as a 3D dosimeter for complex dose distribution measurement of high dose-rate (HDR) brachytherapy. However, various shapes of catheter/applicator for sealed radioactive source transport used in clinical cases must be placed in the gel sample. The absorbed dose readout for the magnetic resonance (MR)-based polymer gel dosimeters requires calibration data for the dose-transverse relaxation rate (R2) response. In this study, we evaluated in detail the dose uncertainty and dose resolution of three calibration methods, the multi-sample and distance methods using the Ir-192 source and the linear accelerator (linac) method using 6MV X-rays. The use of Ir-192 sources increases dose uncertainty with steep dose gradients. We clarified that the uniformly irradiated gel sample improved the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) due to the large slice thickness of MR images and could acquire an accurate calibration curve using the linac method. The curved tandem and ovoid applicator used for intracavitary irradiation of HDR brachytherapy for cervical cancer were reproduced with a glass tube to verify the dose distribution. The results of comparison with the treatment planning system (TPS) calculation by gamma analysis on the 3%/2 mm criterion were in good agreement with a gamma pass rate of 90%. In addition, the prescription dose could be evaluated accurately. We conclude that it is easy to place catheter/applicator in the polymer gel dosimeters, making them a useful tool for verifying the 3D dose distribution of HDR brachytherapy with accurate calibration methods.

Chemical Overview of Gel Dosimetry Systems: A Comprehensive Review

Advances in radiotherapy technology during the last 25 years have significantly improved both dose conformation to tumors and the preservation of healthy tissues, achieving almost real-time feedback by means of high-precision treatments and theranostics. Owing to this, developing high-performance systems capable of coping with the challenging requirements of modern ionizing radiation is a key issue to overcome the limitations of traditional dosimeters. In this regard, a deep understanding of the physicochemical basis of gel dosimetry, as one of the most promising tools for the evaluation of 3D high-spatial-resolution dose distributions, represents the starting point for developing new and innovative systems. This review aims to contribute thorough descriptions of the chemical processes and interactions that condition gel dosimetry outputs, often phenomenologically addressed, and particularly formulations reported since 2017.

The Impact of Temporal Changes in Irradiated nMAG Polymer Gels on Their Applicability in Small Field Dosimetry in Radiotherapy

As advanced radiotherapy techniques progress to deliver a high absorbed dose to the target volume while minimizing the dose to normal tissues using intensity-modulated beams, arcs or stereotactic radiosurgery, new challenges occur to assure that the high treatment dose is delivered homogeneously to the tumor. Small irradiation field sizes (≤1 cm2) that tightly conform to precise target regions and allow for the deliverance of doses with a high therapeutic ratio, are of particular interest. However, the small field dosimetry using conventional dosimeters is limited by the relative large size of the detector. Radiation-sensitive polymer gels have the potential to meet this dosimetry challenge due to their almost unlimited ability in resolving three-dimensional dose distributions of any shape and makes them unique and suitable for the evaluation of dose profiles and the verification of complex doses. In this work, dose distributions in nMAG gels that have been irradiated to different doses by applying a 6 MV FFF photon beam collimated to 1 cm2, were analyzed and the dose profiles were evaluated by applying a gamma passing rate criteria of 3%/3 mm and considering different post-irradiation time intervals between the irradiation and the gels read out process. X-ray CT and NMR imaging procedures were used for the dose evaluation. It was found that the shape and uniformity of the dose profiles were changing due to post-irradiation polymerization and gelation processes, indicating time dependent growing uniformity which was better expressed for the higher delivered doses. It was estimated that in order to obtain acceptably symmetric small field dose profiles, a longer post-irradiation time is needed for getting the full scope of the polymerization as compared with the recently recommended 24 h period between irradiation and the read out processes of the dose gels. An estimated overall uncertainty (double standard deviation, 95% confidence level) of 3.66% was achieved by applying R2 measurements (NMR read out), and a 3.81-applying X-ray CT read out for 12 Gy irradiated gels 56 h post-irradiation. An increasing tendency for the uncertainty was observed with a decreasing post-irradiation time. A gamma passing rate of 90.3% was estimated for the 12 Gy irradiated gels and, 56 h post-irradiation, the X-ray CT evaluated gels as well as a gamma passing rate of 92.7% was obtained for the NMR evaluated gels applying a 3%/3 mm passing criteria.

Fast Isocenter Determination Using 3D Polymer Gel Dosimetry with Kilovoltage Cone-Beam CT Reading and the PolyGeVero-CT Software Package for Linac Quality Assurance in Radiotherapy

This work presents an approach to the fast determination of a medical accelerator irradiation isocenter as a quality assurance (QA) procedure in radiotherapy. The isocenter determination tool is the tissue equivalent high-resolution 3D polymer gel dosimeter (PABIG^nx) in a dedicated container combined with kilovoltage imaging systems and the polyGeVero-CT software package (v. 1.2, GeVero Co., Poland). Two accelerators were employed: Halcyon and TrueBeam (Varian, USA), both equipped with cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) and iterative reconstruction CBCT (iCBCT) algorithms. The scope of this work includes: (i) the examination of factors influencing image quality (reconstruction algorithms and modes), radiation field parameters (dose and multi-leaf collimator (MLC) gaps), fiducial markers, signal averaging for reconstruction algorithms and the scanning time interval between consecutive scans, (ii) the examination of factors influencing the isocenter determination, image processing (signal averaging, background subtraction, image filtering) and (iii) an isocenter determination report using a 2D and 3D approach. An optimized protocol and isocenter determination conditions were found. The time and effort required to determine the isocenter are discussed.

Radiation Dosimetry by Use of Radiosensitive Hydrogels and Polymers: Mechanisms, State-of-the-Art and Perspective from 3D to 4D

Gel dosimetry was developed in the 1990s in response to a growing need for methods to validate the radiation dose distribution delivered to cancer patients receiving high-precision radiotherapy. Three different classes of gel dosimeters were developed and extensively studied. The first class of gel dosimeters is the Fricke gel dosimeters, which consist of a hydrogel with dissolved ferrous ions that oxidize upon exposure to ionizing radiation. The oxidation results in a change in the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxation, which makes it possible to read out Fricke gel dosimeters by use of quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The radiation-induced oxidation in Fricke gel dosimeters can also be visualized by adding an indicator such as xylenol orange. The second class of gel dosimeters is the radiochromic gel dosimeters, which also exhibit a color change upon irradiation but do not use a metal ion. These radiochromic gel dosimeters do not demonstrate a significant radiation-induced change in NMR properties. The third class is the polymer gel dosimeters, which contain vinyl monomers that polymerize upon irradiation. Polymer gel dosimeters are predominantly read out by quantitative MRI or X-ray CT. The accuracy of the dosimeters depends on both the physico-chemical properties of the gel dosimeters and on the readout technique. Many different gel formulations have been proposed and discussed in the scientific literature in the last three decades, and scanning methods have been optimized to achieve an acceptable accuracy for clinical dosimetry. More recently, with the introduction of the MR-Linac, which combines an MRI-scanner and a clinical linear accelerator in one, it was shown possible to acquire dose maps during radiation, but new challenges arise.

Features of PABIGnx 3D Polymer Gel as an Ionising Radiation Dosimeter

This work presents the features of the PABIG^nx 3D polymer gel dosimeter. It consists of two cross-linkers: poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA), as one biacrylic component, and N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide (MBA), which is another cross-linker often used in 3D dosimeters. Additionally, it contains oxygen scavenges of copper sulfate pentahydrate and ascorbic acid. All ingredients are embedded in a physical gel matrix of gelatine. Upon irradiation, the biacrylic cross-linking agents (PEGDA and MBA) undergo radical polymerisation and cross-linking, which is manifested by the appearance of the opacity of the intensity related to the absorbed dose. PABIG^nx was irradiated with an oncological source of ionising radiation, and analysed by using a nuclear magnetic resonance (0.5 T). The following characteristics were obtained: (i) linear and dynamic dose-response of 0.5 to ~18 Gy and 40 Gy, respectively, (ii) dose sensitivity of 0.071 ± 0.001 Gy⁻¹ s⁻¹, (iii) integral 3D dose distribution for at least 24 days after irradiation, (iv) adequate batch-to-batch reproducibility, (v) dose-response independent of irradiation with 6 MV photons, 15 MV photons, 6 MV photons FFF of 0.0168–0.1094 Gy/s dose rates, and (vi) soft tissue equivalence. The study showed that the features of PABIG^nx confirm its suitability for use in 3D radiotherapy dosimetry.

Fricke-Xylenol orange-Gelatin gel characterization with dual wavelength cone-beam optical CT scanner for applications in stereotactic and dynamic radiotherapy

PURPOSE

This study is about the development of a new dual wavelength reading method of Fricke-Xylenol orange-Gelatin (FXG) gel dosimeters on the Vista16™ optical Computed Tomography (CT) scanner to perform 3D dose distribution measurements in stereotactic and dynamic radiotherapy treatments.

METHODS

The dosimetric characteristics of an optimized FXG gel composition and its optical CT readout have been evaluated. A dual wavelength reading method has been developed on the CT scanner at wavelengths 590 nm and 633 nm. Small-field dose profile measurements with FXG gel and microDiamond (PTW) detectors were compared by γ-index analysis (0.5%/0.5 mm) to validate this method.

RESULTS

This reading method exhibits linear calibration curves in the 0-4 Gy and 2-10 Gy dose ranges at 590 nm and 633 nm respectively. The absorbed dose values below 4 Gy, measured at 590 nm, and those above 4 Gy, measured at 633 nm, are combined to plot a complete profile. A γ passing rate of 93.4% was achieved.

CONCLUSIONS

The new reading method of FXG gel dosimeters has been implemented on the Vista16™ scanner to span absorbed doses representative of stereotactic and dynamic radiotherapy treatments and enable 3D measurements in tumor volumes and surrounding healthy tissues. Small-field profile measurements validated this reading method as FXG gel dosimeters and microDiamond detectors were in very close agreement. This dosimetric method is a promising candidate for 3D quality assurance end-to-end tests in stereotactic and dynamic radiotherapy.

Improved Dose Response of N-(Hydroxymethyl)acrylamide Gel Dosimeter with Calcium Chloride for Radiotherapy

The impact of calcium chloride (CaCl₂) on the performance of N-(hydroxymethyl)acrylamide (NHMA) polymer gel dosimeter is studied in this article. The dosimeter was exposed to doses of up to 10 Gy with radiation beam-energy of 10 MV and dose-rates of 300 cGy/min. The relaxation rate (R₂) parameter was utilized to explore the performance of irradiated NHMAGAT gels. The dose response in terms of R₂ increased from 0.29 to 0.63 Gy⁻¹·s⁻¹ with increasing calcium chloride concentration from 0 to 1000 mM. The results show no substantial impact of dose-rates as well as radiation energies on NHMAGAT samples. For the steadiness of irradiated NHMAGAT dosimeters, it was found that there is no apparent variation in R₂ (less than ±3%; standard deviation) up to 3 days. The overall uncertainty of the gel dosimeter with calcium chloride is 4.96% (double standard deviation, 95% confidence level).

Laser Light Trapping Phenomenon in a 3D Radiotherapy Polymer Gel Dosimeter

This paper aims to explain the phenomenon of laser light trapping (LLT) in a 3D polymer gel dosimeter. A VIC-T polymer gel dosimeter containing 17% N-vinylpyrrolidone, 8% N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide, 12% tert-butyl alcohol, 5% gelatine, 0.02% hydroquinone and 14 mM tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chloride was used in this study. It was exposed to green laser light with a wavelength of 532 nm. A film was recorded during the exposure. After exposure, Raman spectroscopy was used to study the reactions taking place inside the dosimeter. The obtained results were used to explain what the LLT phenomenon is, what are the consequences for the dosimeter in which such a phenomenon occurs, and what dosimeter components play an important role in the occurrence of LLT. In addition, the conditions under which 3D polymer gel dosimeters can be measured using optical computed tomography at short wavelengths of visible laser light are indicated.

Hydrogels for Three-Dimensional Ionizing-Radiation Dosimetry

Radiation-sensitive gels are among the most recent and promising developments for radiation therapy (RT) dosimetry. RT dosimetry has the twofold goal of ensuring the quality of the treatment and the radiation protection of the patient. Benchmark dosimetry for acceptance testing and commissioning of RT systems is still based on ionization chambers. However, even the smallest chambers cannot resolve the steep dose gradients of up to 30-50% per mm generated with the most advanced techniques. While a multitude of systems based, e.g., on luminescence, silicon diodes and radiochromic materials have been developed, they do not allow the truly continuous 3D dose measurements offered by radiation-sensitive gels. The gels are tissue equivalent, so they also serve as phantoms, and their response is largely independent of radiation quality and dose rate. Some of them are infused with ferrous sulfate and rely on the radiation-induced oxidation of ferrous ions to ferric ions (Fricke-gels). Other formulations consist of monomers dispersed in a gelatinous medium (Polyacrylamide gels) and rely on radiation-induced polymerization, which creates a stable polymer structure. In both gel types, irradiation causes changes in proton relaxation rates that are proportional to locally absorbed dose and can be imaged using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Changes in color and/or opacification of the gels also occur upon irradiation, allowing the use of optical tomography techniques. In this work, we review both Fricke and polyacrylamide gels with emphasis on their chemical and physical properties and on their applications for radiation dosimetry.

Evaluation of two calibration methods for MRI-based polymer gel dosimetry

Polymer gel dosimetry (PGD) can provide three-dimensional (3D) dose data for evaluation of the dose calculation algorithms used by treatment planning systems (TPS). Although the PGD technique, particularly with MRI, is now ready for clinical applications, an accurate calibration method is vital for treatment validation in 3D. This study evaluated the single-phantom electron beam (SPE) method that used the depth-dose data of a 9 MeV electron beam. This technique was compared with the multi-vial x-ray (MVX) method that used nine small vials irradiated with various doses. We tested two regression equations, i.e., third-order polynomial and tangent functions, and two dose-normalization methods, i.e., one-point and two-point methods. These methods were evaluated using a dose distribution generated by a 3 cm × 3 cm open arc beam. We used MAGAT polymer gel manufactured in-house. We found that the SPE method required a smaller dose scaling for the dose comparison. The tangent function showed better data fitting than the polynomial function with smaller uncertainty of the estimated coefficients. We did not observe a distinct advantage of the SPE method over the MVX method for the 3D dose comparison with the test case. From this study, we infer that the SPE method with the tangent function as the regression equation and one-point dose normalization is a good calibration option for the MRI-based polymer gel dosimetry.