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Poggini S, Matte Bon G, Ciano Albanese N, Karpova N, Castrén E, D'Andrea I, Branchi I. Subjective experience of the environment determines serotoninergic antidepressant treatment outcome in male mice. J Affect Disord 2024; 350:900-908. [PMID: 38246279 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2024.01.145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/14/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The effects of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), the first-line antidepressant treatment, have been proposed to be affected, at least in part, by the living environment. Since the quality of the environment depends not only on its objective features, but also on the subjective experience, we hypothesized that the latter plays a key role in determining SSRI treatment outcome. METHODS We chronically administered the SSRI fluoxetine to two groups of adult CD-1 male mice that reportedly show distinct subjective experiences of the environment measured as consistent and significantly different responses to the same emotional and social stimuli. These distinct socioemotional profiles were generated by rearing mice either in standard laboratory conditions (SN) or in a communal nest (CN) where three dams breed together their offspring, sharing caregiving behavior. RESULTS At adulthood, CN mice displayed higher levels of agonistic and anxiety-like behaviors than SN mice, indicating that they experience the environment as more socially challenging and potentially dangerous. We then administered fluoxetine, which increased offensive and anxious response in SN, while producing opposite effects in CN mice. BDNF regulation was modified by the treatment accordingly. LIMITATIONS Subjective experience in mice was assessed as behavioral response to the environment. CONCLUSIONS These results show that the subjective experience of the environment determines fluoxetine outcome. In a translational perspective, our findings suggest considering not only the objective quality, but also the subjective appraisal, of the patient's living environment for developing effective personalized therapeutic approaches in psychiatry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Poggini
- Center for Behavioral Sciences and Mental Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Gloria Matte Bon
- Center for Behavioral Sciences and Mental Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Naomi Ciano Albanese
- Center for Behavioral Sciences and Mental Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Nina Karpova
- Neuroscience Center, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 63, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Eero Castrén
- Neuroscience Center, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 63, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ivana D'Andrea
- Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale (INSERM) UMR-S 1270, Sorbonne Université, Sciences and Engineering Faculty, Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Igor Branchi
- Center for Behavioral Sciences and Mental Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy.
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2
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Neural mechanism underlying depressive-like state associated with social status loss. Cell 2023; 186:560-576.e17. [PMID: 36693374 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Downward social mobility is a well-known mental risk factor for depression, but its neural mechanism remains elusive. Here, by forcing mice to lose against their subordinates in a non-violent social contest, we lower their social ranks stably and induce depressive-like behaviors. These rank-decline-associated depressive-like behaviors can be reversed by regaining social status. In vivo fiber photometry and single-unit electrophysiological recording show that forced loss, but not natural loss, generates negative reward prediction error (RPE). Through the lateral hypothalamus, the RPE strongly activates the brain's anti-reward center, the lateral habenula (LHb). LHb activation inhibits the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) that controls social competitiveness and reinforces retreats in contests. These results reveal the core neural mechanisms mutually promoting social status loss and depressive behaviors. The intertwined neuronal signaling controlling mPFC and LHb activities provides a mechanistic foundation for the crosstalk between social mobility and psychological disorder, unveiling a promising target for intervention.
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3
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Osler M, Wium-Andersen MK, Wium-Andersen IK, Gronemann FH, Jørgensen MB, Rozing MP. Incidence of suicidal behaviour and violent crime following antidepressant medication: a Danish cohort study. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2019; 140:522-531. [PMID: 31487044 DOI: 10.1111/acps.13097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine the incidence of suicidal and violent behaviour following initiation of antidepressant medication. METHOD Cohorts of 997 911 conscripts and 95 794 patients with a first-time affective disorder were followed for purchase of antidepressant medication, suicide, suicide attempts and conviction for violent crime in Danish registries between 1997 through 2015. Incidence of outcomes was estimated for the first 28 days, 28-365 days or later after initiation of antidepressants or study entry. RESULTS Of 16.5% of conscripts and 73.7% of patients with affective disorders initiated antidepressant medication. Incidence of suicide was 3-4 times higher during the first 28 days after initiation compared to the rates in the following year in both cohorts. A similar trend was seen among the untreated patients with affective disorders, whereas suicide incidence was stable at a low level among conscripts not treated with antidepressants. Incidence of attempted suicide was highest during the 28 days before and after initiation of antidepressants, while rates of violent crime were similar before and after initiation. These trends in incidence were independent of class of antidepressant. CONCLUSION Higher rates of suicidal behaviour in the weeks following initiation of antidepressant medication probably reflect disease severity and a delay in mood response.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Osler
- Center for Clinical Research and Prevention, Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg Hospitals, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Section for Epidemiology, Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - M K Wium-Andersen
- Center for Clinical Research and Prevention, Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg Hospitals, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - I K Wium-Andersen
- Center for Clinical Research and Prevention, Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg Hospitals, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Psychiatric Centre Copenhagen Dept O, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - F H Gronemann
- Center for Clinical Research and Prevention, Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg Hospitals, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - M B Jørgensen
- Psychiatric Centre Copenhagen Dept O, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - M P Rozing
- Section for Epidemiology, Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Psychiatric Centre Copenhagen Dept O, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark.,The Research Unit for General Practice and Section of General Practice, Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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4
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Vestlund J, Winsa-Jörnulf J, Hovey D, Lundström S, Lichtenstein P, Anckarsäter H, Studer E, Suchankova P, Westberg L, Jerlhag E. Ghrelin and aggressive behaviours-Evidence from preclinical and human genetic studies. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2019; 104:80-88. [PMID: 30818255 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Aggressive behaviour is of crucial importance in the defence for limited resources including food and mates and involves central serotonin as well as dopamine signalling. As ghrelin modulates food intake and sexual behaviour we initially investigated the hypothesis that central ghrelin signalling regulates aggressive behaviour in the resident intruder paradigm in male mice. Moreover, interaction between ghrelin signalling and serotonergic, noradrenergic as well as dopaminergic neurotransmission in aggression was investigated. The relevance of ghrelin for human aggression per se as well as for aggression induced by alcohol was evaluated in a human genetic association study comprising young men (n = 784) from the normal population assessed for anti-social behaviours. The present study demonstrates that central ghrelin infusion, but not ghrelin administered systemically, increases aggression. Moreover aggressive behaviour is decreased by pharmacological suppression of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor-1 A (GHSR-1A) by JMV2959. As indicated by the ex vivo biochemical data serotonin, rather than dopamine or noradrenaline, in amygdala may have central roles for the ability of JMV2959 to reduce aggression. This link between central serotonin, GHSR-1A and aggression is further substantiated by the behavioural data showing that JMV2959 cannot decrease aggression following depletion of central serotonin signalling. The genetic association study demonstrates that males carrying the Leu72Leu genotype of the pre-pro-ghrelin gene and displaying hazardous alcohol use are more aggressive when compared to the group carrying the Met-allele. Collectively, this contributes to the identification of central ghrelin pathway as an important modulator in the onset of aggressive behaviours in male mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesper Vestlund
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Julia Winsa-Jörnulf
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Daniel Hovey
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Sebastian Lundström
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Paul Lichtenstein
- Karolinska Institutet, Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Henrik Anckarsäter
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Centre of Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Erik Studer
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Petra Suchankova
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Lars Westberg
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Elisabet Jerlhag
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
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5
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Impact of anger emotional stress before pregnancy on adult male offspring. Oncotarget 2017; 8:98837-98852. [PMID: 29228731 PMCID: PMC5716771 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.22007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have reported that maternal chronic stress or depression is linked to an increased risk of affective disorders in progeny. However, the impact of maternal chronic stress before pregnancy on the progeny of animal models is unknown. We investigated the behaviors and the neurobiology of 60-day-old male offspring of female rats subjected to 21 days of resident-intruder stress before pregnancy. An anger stressed parental rat model was established using the resident-intruder paradigm and it was evaluated using behavioral tests. Anger stressed maternal rats showed a significant increase in locomotion and aggression but a reduction in sucrose preference. Offspring subjected to pre-gestational anger stress displayed enhanced aggressive behaviors, reduced anxiety, and sucrose preference. Further, offspring subjected to pre-gestational stress showed significant impairments in the recognition index (RI) on the object recognition test and the number of platform crossings in the Morris water maze test. The monoaminergic system was significantly altered in pre-gestationally stressed offspring, and the expression of phosphorylated cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element binding protein (P-CREB), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and serotonin transporter (SERT) levels in pre-gestational stressed offspring were altered in some brain regions. Fluoxetine was used to treat pre-gestational stressed maternal rats and it significantly reduced the changes caused by stress, as evidenced by both behaviors and neural biochemical indexes in the offspring in some but not all cases. These findings suggest that anger stress before pregnancy could induce aggressive behaviors, cognitive deficits, and neurobiological alterations in offspring.
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Abstract
Previous attempts to identify a unified theory of brain serotonin function have largely failed to achieve consensus. In this present synthesis, we integrate previous perspectives with new and older data to create a novel bipartite model centred on the view that serotonin neurotransmission enhances two distinct adaptive responses to adversity, mediated in large part by its two most prevalent and researched brain receptors: the 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors. We propose that passive coping (i.e. tolerating a source of stress) is mediated by postsynaptic 5-HT1AR signalling and characterised by stress moderation. Conversely, we argue that active coping (i.e. actively addressing a source of stress) is mediated by 5-HT2AR signalling and characterised by enhanced plasticity (defined as capacity for change). We propose that 5-HT1AR-mediated stress moderation may be the brain's default response to adversity but that an improved ability to change one's situation and/or relationship to it via 5-HT2AR-mediated plasticity may also be important - and increasingly so as the level of adversity reaches a critical point. We propose that the 5-HT1AR pathway is enhanced by conventional 5-HT reuptake blocking antidepressants such as the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), whereas the 5-HT2AR pathway is enhanced by 5-HT2AR-agonist psychedelics. This bipartite model purports to explain how different drugs (SSRIs and psychedelics) that modulate the serotonergic system in different ways, can achieve complementary adaptive and potentially therapeutic outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- RL Carhart-Harris
- Psychedelic Research Group, Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Centre for Psychiatry, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - DJ Nutt
- Psychedelic Research Group, Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Centre for Psychiatry, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
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7
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Goody SMG, Cannon KE, Liu M, Kallman MJ, Martinolle JP, Mazelin-Winum L, Giarola A, Ardayfio P, Moyer JA, Teuns G, Hudzik TJ. Considerations on nonclinical approaches to modeling risk factors of suicidal ideation and behavior. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2017; 89:288-301. [PMID: 28757322 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2017.07.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Revised: 07/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Given the serious nature of suicidal ideation and behavior (SIB) and the possibility of treatment-emergent SIB, pharmaceutical companies are now applying more proactive approaches in clinical trials and are considering the value of nonclinical models to predict SIB. The current review summarizes nonclinical approaches to modeling three common risk factors associated with SIB: aggression, impulsivity, and anhedonia. For each risk factor, a general description, advantages and disadvantages, species considerations, nonclinical to clinical translation, and pharmacological validation with respect to treatments associated with SIB are summarized. From this review, several gaps were identified that need to be addressed before use of these nonclinical models can be considered a viable option to predict the relative risk for SIB. Other future directions that may compliment these nonclinical approaches, including the use of selectively-bred or genetically-modified rodent models, transgenic models, gene expression profiling, and biomarker analysis, are discussed. This article was developed with the support of the DruSafe Leadership Group of the International Consortium for Innovation and Quality in Pharmaceutical Development (IQ, www.iqconsortium.org).
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Affiliation(s)
- S M G Goody
- Pfizer Drug Safety Research & Development, Groton, CT, USA.
| | | | - M Liu
- Drinker, Biddle and IQ Consortium, Washington, DC, USA
| | - M J Kallman
- Kallman Preclinical Consulting, Greenfield, IN, USA
| | | | | | - A Giarola
- GlaxoSmithKline Safety Pharmacology Department, Ware, UK
| | - P Ardayfio
- Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - J A Moyer
- Janssen Research & Development, Titusville, NJ, USA
| | - G Teuns
- Janssen Research & Development, Beerse, Belgium
| | - T J Hudzik
- ALA BioPharm Consulting, Gurnee, IL, USA
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8
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Sharma AN, Fries GR, Galvez JF, Valvassori SS, Soares JC, Carvalho AF, Quevedo J. Modeling mania in preclinical settings: A comprehensive review. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2016; 66:22-34. [PMID: 26545487 PMCID: PMC4728043 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Revised: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The current pathophysiological understanding of mechanisms leading to onset and progression of bipolar manic episodes remains limited. At the same time, available animal models for mania have limited face, construct, and predictive validities. Additionally, these models fail to encompass recent pathophysiological frameworks of bipolar disorder (BD), e.g. neuroprogression. Therefore, there is a need to search for novel preclinical models for mania that could comprehensively address these limitations. Herein we review the history, validity, and caveats of currently available animal models for mania. We also review new genetic models for mania, namely knockout mice for genes involved in neurotransmission, synapse formation, and intracellular signaling pathways. Furthermore, we review recent trends in preclinical models for mania that may aid in the comprehension of mechanisms underlying the neuroprogressive and recurring nature of BD. In conclusion, the validity of animal models for mania remains limited. Nevertheless, novel (e.g. genetic) animal models as well as adaptation of existing paradigms hold promise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajaykumar N. Sharma
- Center for Translational Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA,Center of Excellence on Mood Disorders, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA
| | - Gabriel R. Fries
- Center for Translational Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA
| | - Juan F. Galvez
- Department of Psychiatry, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana School of Medicine, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Samira S. Valvassori
- Laboratory of Neurosciences, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Health Sciences Unit, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Criciúma, SC, Brazil
| | - Jair C. Soares
- Center of Excellence on Mood Disorders, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA
| | - André F. Carvalho
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Translational Psychiatry Research Group, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Joao Quevedo
- Center for Translational Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA; Center of Excellence on Mood Disorders, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA; Laboratory of Neurosciences, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Health Sciences Unit, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Criciúma, SC, Brazil.
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9
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Logan RW, McClung CA. Animal models of bipolar mania: The past, present and future. Neuroscience 2015; 321:163-188. [PMID: 26314632 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.08.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Revised: 08/17/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Bipolar disorder (BD) is the sixth leading cause of disability in the world according to the World Health Organization and affects nearly six million (∼2.5% of the population) adults in the United State alone each year. BD is primarily characterized by mood cycling of depressive (e.g., helplessness, reduced energy and activity, and anhedonia) and manic (e.g., increased energy and hyperactivity, reduced need for sleep, impulsivity, reduced anxiety and depression), episodes. The following review describes several animal models of bipolar mania with a focus on more recent findings using genetically modified mice, including several with the potential of investigating the mechanisms underlying 'mood' cycling (or behavioral switching in rodents). We discuss whether each of these models satisfy criteria of validity (i.e., face, predictive, and construct), while highlighting their strengths and limitations. Animal models are helping to address critical questions related to pathophysiology of bipolar mania, in an effort to more clearly define necessary targets of first-line medications, lithium and valproic acid, and to discover novel mechanisms with the hope of developing more effective therapeutics. Future studies will leverage new technologies and strategies for integrating animal and human data to reveal important insights into the etiology, pathophysiology, and treatment of BD.
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Affiliation(s)
- R W Logan
- University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 223, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, United States
| | - C A McClung
- University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 223, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, United States.
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10
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Andrews PW, Bharwani A, Lee KR, Fox M, Thomson JA. Is serotonin an upper or a downer? The evolution of the serotonergic system and its role in depression and the antidepressant response. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015; 51:164-88. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2013] [Revised: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 01/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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11
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Willner P. The neurobiology of aggression: implications for the pharmacotherapy of aggressive challenging behaviour by people with intellectual disabilities. JOURNAL OF INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY RESEARCH : JIDR 2015; 59:82-92. [PMID: 24467721 DOI: 10.1111/jir.12120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/12/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
AIM The aim of this review is to summarise current understanding of the neurobiology of aggression and within this context to consider the evidence base for the pharmacotherapy of aggressive challenging behaviour by people with intellectual disabilities (ID). EVIDENCE Aggressive encounters involve a variety of psychological processes and progress has been made in understanding the brain mechanisms involved. However, the role in aggression of the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine and γ-aminobutyric acid is no longer as clear as it once appeared, with the result that predictions cannot be made with confidence about drug effects on aggression. There have been relatively few controlled trials of pharmacotherapy for aggression in people with ID, or, indeed, in the general population, and their outcomes have largely been negative. CONCLUSION With the possible exception of risperidone, there is no reliable evidence that antidepressant, neuroleptic or anticonvulsant drugs are effective treatments for aggression by people with ID.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Willner
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
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12
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Ten Eyck GR, Regen EM. Chronic fluoxetine treatment promotes submissive behavior in the territorial frog, Eleutherodactylus coqui. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2014; 124:86-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2014.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2014] [Revised: 05/15/2014] [Accepted: 05/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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13
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Jin ZL, Gao N, Zhang JR, Li XR, Chen HX, Xiong J, Li YF, Tang Y. The discovery of Yuanzhi-1, a triterpenoid saponin derived from the traditional Chinese medicine, has antidepressant-like activity. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2014; 53:9-14. [PMID: 24614095 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2014.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2013] [Revised: 02/27/2014] [Accepted: 02/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Yuanzhi, the dried root of Polygala tenuifolia Willd., is a well-known traditional Chinese medicine used for its sedative, antipsychotic, cognitive improving, neuroprotective, and antidepressant effects. The present study was designed to screen and identify the antidepressant-like effect of six triterpenoid saponin components derived from Yuanzhi (Yuanzhi-1 to Yuanzhi-6) using in vitro radioligand receptor binding assays and in vivo behavioral tests. Yuanzhi-1, -3, -5 and -6 were shown to have antidepressant-like activity in the tail suspension test and forced swim test in mice, with no stimulant effect on locomotor activity. The minimal effective dose of Yuanzhi-1 (2.5 mg/kg) was lower than that of duloxetine (5mg/kg), a serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor commonly used in the treatment of depression. Yuanzhi-1 (1 nM) had a high affinity for serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine transporters. Acute toxicity tests indicated that the LD50 of Yuanzhi-1 (86.5mg/kg) was similar to that of duloxetine (73.2 mg/kg). These findings demonstrate that Yuanzhi-1 has a potential to be a novel triple monoamine reuptake inhibitor of antidepressant-like activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeng-liang Jin
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, PR China
| | - Nana Gao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, PR China
| | | | - Xiao-rong Li
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, PR China
| | - Hong-xia Chen
- Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing 100850, PR China
| | - Jie Xiong
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, PR China
| | - Yun-feng Li
- Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing 100850, PR China
| | - Yu Tang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, PR China.
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Wei S, Ji XW, Wu CL, Li ZF, Sun P, Wang JQ, Zhao QT, Gao J, Guo YH, Sun SG, Qiao MQ. Resident intruder paradigm-induced aggression relieves depressive-like behaviors in male rats subjected to chronic mild stress. Med Sci Monit 2014; 20:945-52. [PMID: 24911067 PMCID: PMC4067422 DOI: 10.12659/msm.890200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Accumulating epidemiological evidence shows that life event stressors are major vulnerability factors for psychiatric diseases such as major depression. It is also well known that the resident intruder paradigm (RIP) results in aggressive behavior in male rats. However, it is not known how resident intruder paradigm-induced aggression affects depressive-like behavior in isolated male rats subjected to chronic mild stress (CMS), which is an animal model of depression. Material/Methods Male Wistar rats were divided into 3 groups: non-stressed controls, isolated rats subjected to the CMS protocol, and resident intruder paradigm-exposed rats subjected to the CMS protocol. Results In the sucrose intake test, ingestion of a 1% sucrose solution by rats in the CMS group was significantly lower than in control and CMS+RIP rats after 3 weeks of stress. In the open-field test, CMS rats had significantly lower open-field scores compared to control rats. Furthermore, the total scores given the CMS group were significantly lower than in the CMS+RIP rats. In the forced swimming test (FST), the immobility times of CMS rats were significantly longer than those of the control or CMS+RIP rats. However, no differences were observed between controls and CMS+RIP rats. Conclusions Our data show that aggressive behavior evoked by the resident intruder paradigm could relieve broad-spectrum depressive-like behaviors in isolated adult male rats subjected to CMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Wei
- Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Classical Theory, Ministry of Education, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China (mainland)
| | - Xiao-wei Ji
- Second Affiliated Hospita, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Shandong Provincial Hospital of Integrated Medicine, Jinan, China (mainland)
| | | | - Zi-fa Li
- Laboratory of Behavioral Brain Analysis, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China (mainland)
| | - Peng Sun
- Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Classical Theory, Ministry of Education, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China (mainland)
| | - Jie-qiong Wang
- Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Classical Theory, Ministry of Education, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China (mainland)
| | - Qi-tao Zhao
- Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Classical Theory, Ministry of Education, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China (mainland)
| | - Jie Gao
- Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Classical Theory, Ministry of Education, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China (mainland)
| | - Ying-hui Guo
- Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Classical Theory, Ministry of Education, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China (mainland)
| | - Shi-guang Sun
- Laboratory of Behavioral Brain Analysis, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China (mainland)
| | - Ming-qi Qiao
- Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Classical Theory, Ministry of Education, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China (mainland)
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Serotonin depletion counteracts sex differences in anxiety-related behaviour in rat. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2013; 230:29-35. [PMID: 23681161 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-013-3133-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2012] [Accepted: 04/23/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Numerous studies suggest (1) that a major physiological role of brain serotonin-containing neurons is to modulate sex steroid-driven behaviour such as sex and aggression, (2) that sex steroids influence brain serotonergic neurotransmission and (3) that brain serotonergic neurotransmission displays sexual dimorphism. Such observations indicate that an important task for brain serotonin is to either enhance or counteract sex differences in behaviour. METHODS To test this hypothesis, we explored the effect of short-term serotonin depletion on the behaviour of adult male and female rats in a behavioural paradigm in which males and females have been shown to behave differently, i.e. the elevated plus maze. RESULTS Two rounds of testing of untreated Wistar rats confirmed the previous observation that females make more entries into open arms (round 1, p = 0.001; round 2, p = 0.008) and spend more time on these arms (round 1, p ≤ 0.001; round 2, p = 0.006) than males; in addition, males displayed fewer entries into closed arms upon habituation, i.e. at the second round (p ≤ 0.001) than did females. Administration of the tryptophan hydroxylase inhibitor para-chloro-phenylalanine, at a regimen (300 mg/kg/day for 3 days), markedly reducing brain content of serotonin, enhanced entries upon open arms (p = 0.01) and time spent on open arms (p = 0.004) in males but exerted no such effects in females (p = 0.9 and p = 0.9, respectively); moreover, it reduced entries into closed arms in females (p ≤ 0.001) but not in males (p = 0.1). CONCLUSIONS Serotonin depletion abolishing the sex differences observed at baseline supports the theory that serotonin aids to uphold certain sex differences in behaviour.
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Leading compounds for the validation of animal models of psychopathology. Cell Tissue Res 2013; 354:309-30. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-013-1692-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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17
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The role of the serotonergic system at the interface of aggression and suicide. Neuroscience 2013; 236:160-85. [PMID: 23333677 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2012] [Revised: 01/01/2013] [Accepted: 01/05/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Alterations in serotonin (5-HT) neurochemistry have been implicated in the aetiology of all major neuropsychiatric disorders, ranging from schizophrenia to mood and anxiety-spectrum disorders. This review will focus on the multifaceted implications of 5-HT-ergic dysfunctions in the pathophysiology of aggressive and suicidal behaviours. After a brief overview of the anatomical distribution of the 5-HT-ergic system in the key brain areas that govern aggression and suicidal behaviours, the implication of 5-HT markers (5-HT receptors, transporter as well as synthetic and metabolic enzymes) in these conditions is discussed. In this regard, particular emphasis is placed on the integration of pharmacological and genetic evidence from animal studies with the findings of human experimental and genetic association studies. Traditional views postulated an inverse relationship between 5-HT and aggression and suicidal behaviours; however, ample evidence has shown that this perspective may be overly simplistic, and that such pathological manifestations may reflect alterations in 5-HT homoeostasis due to the interaction of genetic, environmental and gender-related factors, particularly during early critical developmental stages. The development of animal models that may capture the complexity of such interactions promises to afford a powerful tool to elucidate the pathophysiology of impulsive aggression and suicidability, and identify new effective therapies for these conditions.
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Young JW, Henry BL, Geyer MA. Predictive animal models of mania: hits, misses and future directions. Br J Pharmacol 2012; 164:1263-84. [PMID: 21410454 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01318.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mania has long been recognized as aberrant behaviour indicative of mental illness. Manic states include a variety of complex and multifaceted symptoms that challenge clear clinical distinctions. Symptoms include over-activity, hypersexuality, irritability and reduced need for sleep, with cognitive deficits recently linked to functional outcome. Current treatments have arisen through serendipity or from other disorders. Hence, treatments are not efficacious for all patients, and there is an urgent need to develop targeted therapeutics. Part of the drug discovery process is the assessment of therapeutics in animal models. Here we review pharmacological, environmental and genetic manipulations developed to test the efficacy of therapeutics in animal models of mania. The merits of these models are discussed in terms of the manipulation used and the facet of mania measured. Moreover, the predictive validity of these models is discussed in the context of differentiating drugs that succeed or fail to meet criteria as approved mania treatments. The multifaceted symptomatology of mania has not been reflected in the majority of animal models, where locomotor activity remains the primary measure. This approach has resulted in numerous false positives for putative treatments. Recent work highlights the need to utilize multivariate strategies to enable comprehensive assessment of affective and cognitive dysfunction. Advances in therapeutic treatment may depend on novel models developed with an integrated approach that includes: (i) a comprehensive battery of tests for different aspects of mania, (ii) utilization of genetic information to establish aetiological validity and (iii) objective quantification of patient behaviour with translational cross-species paradigms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared W Young
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0804, USA.
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Abstract
The basic consideration in the field of antidepressants is that tests to model depression do not exist, as depression etiopathology is unknown. So far, any kind of proposed model for depression needs to satisfy construct, face and predictive validities. In the present editorial, this idea is challenged, based on the fact that “old” methods can only reveal therapeutical “me-too” drugs and that there is no longer a need of therapeutical “me-too” drugs in the field of antidepressants. Since reduction in the number of antidepressant non-responders is a real medical need, the predictive validity of animal models will be challenged in the future, as the new methods should be based on antidepressant-insensitive animals. Moreover, antidepressants exert similar effects in depressed and non-depressed subjects, but mood normalization is only induced in depressed patients. This implies that the use of normal cells and animals only involves pharmacological rather than therapeutical actions of drugs. Therefore, the use of environmental-induced changes, in the hope that these can evidence antidepressant-insensitive animals, will predominantly be used in the future. In the choice of experimental settings, other factors need to be taken into consideration: (1) gender of animals, as depression affects females more than males, (2) natural rhythmicity in drug effects; (3) pharmacokinetics; and (4) possible biomarker(s) to be measured. There are no golden recipes to discover new antidepressants but the experimental long-term strategy should very clearly be declared before starting the experiments.
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Zhou XJ, Liu M, Yan JJ, Cao Y, Liu P. Antidepressant-like effect of the extracted of Kai Xin San, a traditional Chinese herbal prescription, is explained by modulation of the central monoaminergic neurotransmitter system in mouse. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2012; 139:422-428. [PMID: 22138350 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2011] [Revised: 10/13/2011] [Accepted: 11/12/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Kai Xin San (KXS) is a traditional Chinese herbal prescription for the treatment of depression-like disorders, anxiety, and impairment in learning and memory, however, there is very little scientific data concerning the efficacy of this. AIM OF THE STUDY The present study aimed to investigate the antidepressant potential of Kai Xin San and its possible mechanisms. MATERIALS AND METHODS Mouse models of depression including the tail suspension test (TST) and the forced swim test (FST) were used to evaluate the effects of KXS. A possible mechanism was explored in the tests of antagonism of reserpine-induced ptosis, akinesia and hypothermia and 5-HTP induced head-twitch response in mice. The contents of monoamine neurotransmitters including epinephrine (NE), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and dopamine (DA) in mice brain were determined by Elisa. Spontaneous motor activities of mice and rotarod test were performed to find whether KXS has excitatory or inhibitory actions on the central nervous system. RESULTS The results showed that intragastric administration of KXS at 175, 350, 700, 1400 mg/kg/day or fluoxetine at 28 mg/kg/day for 3 days significantly reduced the duration of immobility in TST and FST, while it showed no effect on the spontaneous motor activity and rotarod performance in mice. However, the effect was not dose-dependent. The pre-treatment with KXS or fluoxetine for 3 days could elevate the contents of NE, 5-HT and DA in mice brain significantly. When the mice were treated with KXS (350 mg/kg, p.o) or desipramine (30 mg/kg, p.o) for 7 days, both of them could antagonize reserpine-induced ptosis, akinesia and hypothermia. The KXS (350 mg/kg) also increased the accumulative number of the 5-HTP-induced head twitch response in mice in 20 min when KXS at dosages of 175, 350, 700 and 1400 mg/kg/day were performed per os (p.o.) during a 1-day, 3-day or 7-day period. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggested that KXS exerts antidepressant-like effect. A possible mechanism, at least in part, is via the central monoaminergic neurotransmitter system and 5-HT plays a major role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Jiang Zhou
- Institutes of Clinical Pharmacology, Center of Pharmacy, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
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Dekeyne A, Brocco M, Loiseau F, Gobert A, Rivet JM, Di Cara B, Cremers TI, Flik G, Fone KCF, Watson DJG, Papp M, Sharp T, Serres F, Cespuglio R, Olivier B, Chan JSW, Lavielle G, Millan MJ. S32212, a Novel Serotonin Type 2C Receptor Inverse Agonist/α2-Adrenoceptor Antagonist and Potential Antidepressant: II. A Behavioral, Neurochemical, and Electrophysiological Characterization. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2011; 340:765-80. [DOI: 10.1124/jpet.111.187534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
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Stedenfeld KA, Clinton SM, Kerman IA, Akil H, Watson SJ, Sved AF. Novelty-seeking behavior predicts vulnerability in a rodent model of depression. Physiol Behav 2011; 103:210-6. [PMID: 21303678 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2010] [Revised: 01/23/2011] [Accepted: 02/01/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The onset of major depressive disorder is likely precipitated by a combination of heredity and life stress. The present study tested the hypothesis that rats selectively bred on a trait related to emotional reactivity would show differential susceptibility or resilience to the development of depression-like signs in response to chronic mild variable intermittent stress (CMS). METHODS Male Sprague-Dawley rats that were bred based on the trait of either high or low locomotor activity in response to a novel environment were exposed to 4 weeks of CMS or control conditions. Changes in hedonic behavior were assessed using weekly sucrose preference tests and anxiety-like behavior was evaluated using the novelty-suppressed feeding test. RESULTS During 4 weeks of CMS, bred low responder (bLR) rats became anhedonic at a faster rate and to a larger degree than bred high responder (bHR) rats, based on weekly sucrose preference tests. Measures of anxiety-like behavior in the novelty-suppressed feeding test were also significantly increased in the CMS-exposed bLR rats, though no differences were observed between CMS-exposed bHR rats and their unstressed controls. CONCLUSIONS These findings present further evidence that increased emotional reactivity is an important factor in stress susceptibility and the etiology of mood disorders, and that bHR and bLR rats provide a model of resistance or vulnerability to stress-induced depression. Furthermore, exposing bHR and bLR rats to CMS provides an excellent way to study the interaction of genetic and environmental factors in the development of depression-like behavior.
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Brain serotonin receptors and transporters: initiation vs. termination of escalated aggression. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2011; 213:183-212. [PMID: 20938650 PMCID: PMC3684010 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-010-2000-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2010] [Accepted: 08/09/2010] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Recent findings have shown a complexly regulated 5-HT system as it is linked to different kinds of aggression. OBJECTIVE We focus on (1) phasic and tonic changes of 5-HT and (2) state and trait of aggression, and emphasize the different receptor subtypes, their role in specific brain regions, feed-back regulation and modulation by other amines, acids and peptides. RESULTS New pharmacological tools differentiate the first three 5-HT receptor families and their modulation by GABA, glutamate and CRF. Activation of 5-HT(1A), 5-HT(1B) and 5-HT(2A/2C) receptors in mesocorticolimbic areas, reduce species-typical and other aggressive behaviors. In contrast, agonists at 5-HT(1A) and 5-HT(1B) receptors in the medial prefrontal cortex or septal area can increase aggressive behavior under specific conditions. Activation of serotonin transporters reduce mainly pathological aggression. Genetic analyses of aggressive individuals have identified several molecules that affect the 5-HT system directly (e.g., Tph2, 5-HT(1B), 5-HT transporter, Pet1, MAOA) or indirectly (e.g., Neuropeptide Y, αCaMKII, NOS, BDNF). Dysfunction in genes for MAOA escalates pathological aggression in rodents and humans, particularly in interaction with specific experiences. CONCLUSIONS Feedback to autoreceptors of the 5-HT(1) family and modulation via heteroreceptors are important in the expression of aggressive behavior. Tonic increase of the 5-HT(2) family expression may cause escalated aggression, whereas the phasic increase of 5-HT(2) receptors inhibits aggressive behaviors. Polymorphisms in the genes of 5-HT transporters or rate-limiting synthetic and metabolic enzymes of 5-HT modulate aggression, often requiring interaction with the rearing environment.
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Takahashi A, Quadros IM, de Almeida RMM, Miczek KA. Behavioral and pharmacogenetics of aggressive behavior. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2011; 12:73-138. [PMID: 22297576 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2011_191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Serotonin (5-HT) has long been considered as a key transmitter in the neurocircuitry controlling aggression. Impaired regulation of each subtype of 5-HT receptor, 5-HT transporter, synthetic and metabolic enzymes has been linked particularly to impulsive aggression. The current summary focuses mostly on recent findings from pharmacological and genetic studies. The pharmacological treatments and genetic manipulations or polymorphisms of aspecific target (e.g., 5-HT1A receptor) can often result in inconsistent results on aggression, due to "phasic" effects of pharmacological agents versus "trait"-like effects of genetic manipulations. Also, the local administration of a drug using the intracranial microinjection technique has shown that activation of specific subtypes of 5-HT receptors (5-HT1A and 5-HT1B) in mesocorticolimbic areas can reduce species-typical and other aggressive behaviors, but the same receptors in the medial prefrontal cortex or septal area promote escalated forms of aggression. Thus, there are receptor populations in specific brain regions that preferentially modulate specific types of aggression. Genetic studies have shown important gene-environment interactions; it is likely that the polymorphisms in the genes of 5-HT transporters or rate-limiting synthetic and metabolic enzymes of 5-HT (e.g., MAOA) determine the vulnerability to adverse environmental factors that escalate aggression. We also discuss the interaction between the 5-HT system and other systems. Modulation of 5-HT neurons in the dorsalraphe nucleus by GABA, glutamate and CRF profoundly regulate aggressive behaviors. Also, interactions of the 5-HT system with other neuropeptides(arginine vasopressin, oxytocin, neuropeptide Y, opioid) have emerged as important neurobiological determinants of aggression. Studies of aggression in genetically modified mice identified several molecules that affect the 5-HT system directly (e.g., Tph2, 5-HT1B, 5-HT transporter, Pet1, MAOA) or indirectly[e.g., BDNF, neuronal nitric oxide (nNOS), aCaMKII, Neuropeptide Y].The future agenda delineates specific receptor subpopulations for GABA, glutamate and neuropeptides as they modulate the canonical aminergic neurotransmitters in brainstem, limbic and cortical regions with the ultimate outcome of attenuating or escalating aggressive behavior.
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McDonald MD, Gonzalez A, Sloman KA. Higher levels of aggression are observed in socially dominant toadfish treated with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, fluoxetine. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2011; 153:107-12. [PMID: 20883822 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2010.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2010] [Revised: 09/20/2010] [Accepted: 09/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The following study set out to test the hypothesis that acute treatment with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, fluoxetine, would result in a rise in circulating 5-HT levels and consequently a decrease in territorial aggression in the Gulf toadfish, Opsanus beta. Size-matched pairs of toadfish were implanted intraperitoneally with the same dose of fluoxetine (0, 10 or 25 μg g⁻¹). After a social interaction between a pair of fish, circulating levels of serotonin (5-HT; 5-hydroxytryptamine) and cortisol were measured and relative mRNA expression of the 5-HT(1A) receptor in the toadfish brain was determined using quantitative (real-time) PCR (qPCR). Behavioral endpoints such as the number of aggressive acts and swimming activity were also quantified so that dominant and subordinate fish could be identified. Fluoxetine treatment resulted in an increase in circulating levels of 5-HT, regardless of social status. Circulating cortisol concentrations were unaffected by fluoxetine, but were significantly higher in subordinate individuals when compared to dominant fish. Toadfish brain 5-HT(1A) receptor mRNA expression was not affected by treatment or social status. Lastly and contrary to our predictions, fluoxetine treatment resulted in an increase in the number of aggressive acts made by dominant individuals, with no differences in the level of aggression or swimming activity of subordinate fish. This study is the first to describe elevated aggression in a teleost fish with elevated circulating levels of 5-HT.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Danielle McDonald
- Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, Fl 33149-1098, USA.
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Trent S, Drew CJG, Mitchell PJ, Bailey SJ. Chronic treatment with 13-cis-retinoic acid changes aggressive behaviours in the resident-intruder paradigm in rats. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2009; 19:876-86. [PMID: 19651495 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2009.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2009] [Revised: 06/19/2009] [Accepted: 07/07/2009] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Retinoids, vitamin A related compounds, have an established role in the development of the nervous system and are increasingly recognized to play a role in adult brain function. The synthetic retinoid, 13-cis-retinoic acid (13-cis-RA, Roaccutane) is widely used to treat severe acne but has been linked to an increased risk of neuropsychiatric side effects, including depression. Here we report that chronic administration with 13-cis-RA (1 mg/kg i.p. daily, 7-14 days) in adult rats reduced aggression- and increased flight-related behaviours in the resident-intruder paradigm. However, in the forced swim, sucrose consumption and open field tests treatment for up to 6 weeks with 13-cis-RA did not modify behaviour in adult or juvenile animals. The behavioural change observed in the resident-intruder paradigm is directly opposite to that observed with chronic antidepressant administration. These findings indicate that when a suitably sensitive behavioural test is employed then chronic administration of 13-cis-RA in adult rats induces behavioural changes consistent with a pro-depressant action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Trent
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
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Allergic rhinitis induces anxiety-like behavior and altered social interaction in rodents. Brain Behav Immun 2009; 23:784-93. [PMID: 19268702 PMCID: PMC2743459 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2009.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2009] [Revised: 02/24/2009] [Accepted: 02/24/2009] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological and clinical studies report higher incidences of anxiety and increased emotional reactivity in individuals suffering from respiratory allergies. To evaluate if respiratory allergies are capable of promoting anxiety-like behavior in rodents, we used models of allergic rhinitis and behavioral evaluations followed by assessment of mRNA for cytokines in relevant brain regions. Mice and rats were sensitized to ovoalbumin or pollen, respectively, following standard sensitization and challenge protocols. After challenge, the animals were evaluated in the open field, elevated plus-maze and resident-intruder tests. Cytokines and corticotropin-releasing factor expression were assessed in several brain regions by real-time RT-PCR and plasma corticosterone concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Mice and rats sensitized and exposed to allergen showed increased anxiety-like behavior and reduced social interaction without any overt behavioral signs of sickness. T-helper type 2 (T(H)2) cytokines were induced in both rats and mice in the olfactory bulbs and prefrontal cortex and remained unchanged in the temporal cortex and hypothalamus. The same results were found for CRF mRNA expression. No differences were observed in corticosterone concentrations 1h after the last behavioral test. These results show that sensitization and challenge with allergens induce anxiety across rodent species and that these effects were paralleled by an increased expression of T(H)2 cytokines and CRF in the prefrontal cortex. These studies provide experimental evidence that sensitized rodents experience neuroimmune-mediated anxiety and reduced social interaction associated with allergic rhinitis.
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Beyer CE, Lin Q, Platt B, Malberg J, Hornby G, Sullivan KM, Smith DL, Lock T, Mitchell PJ, Hatzenbuhler NT, Evrard DA, Harrison BL, Magolda R, Pangalos MN, Schechter LE, Rosenzweig-Lipson S, Andree TH. Preclinical characterization of WAY-211612: a dual 5-HT uptake inhibitor and 5-HT (1A) receptor antagonist and potential novel antidepressant. Br J Pharmacol 2009; 157:307-19. [PMID: 19338583 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2009.00146.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE As a combination of 5-HT selective reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) with 5-HT(1A) receptor antagonism may yield a rapidly acting antidepressant, WAY-211612, a compound with both SSRI and 5-HT(1A) receptor antagonist activities, was evaluated in preclinical models. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Occupancy studies confirmed the mechanism of action of WAY-211612, while its in vivo profile was characterized in microdialysis and behavioural models. KEY RESULTS WAY-211612 inhibited 5-HT reuptake (K(i) = 1.5 nmol.L(-1); K(B) = 17.7 nmol.L(-1)) and exhibited full 5-HT(1A) receptor antagonist activity (K(i) = 1.2 nmol.L(-1); K(B) = 6.3 nmol.L(-1); I(max) 100% in adenyl cyclase assays; K(B) = 19.8 nmol.L(-1); I(max) 100% in GTPgammaS). WAY-211612 (3 and 30 mg.kg(-1), po) occupied 5-HT reuptake sites in rat prefrontal cortex (56.6% and 73.6% respectively) and hippocampus (52.2% and 78.5%), and 5-HT(1A) receptors in the prefrontal cortex (6.7% and 44.7%), hippocampus (8.3% and 48.6%) and dorsal raphe (15% and 83%). Acute or chronic treatment with WAY-211612 (3-30 mg.kg(-1), po) raised levels of cortical 5-HT approximately twofold, as also observed with a combination of an SSRI (fluoxetine; 30 mg.kg(-1), s.c.) and a 5-HT(1A) antagonist (WAY-100635; 0.3 mg.kg(-1), s.c). WAY-211612 (3.3-30 mg.kg(-1), s.c.) decreased aggressive behaviour in the resident-intruder model, while increasing the number of punished crossings (3-30 mg.kg(-1), i.p. and 10-56 mg.kg(-1), po) in the mouse four-plate model and decreased adjunctive drinking behaviour (56 mg.kg(-1), i.p.) in the rat scheduled-induced polydipsia model. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS These findings suggest that WAY-211612 may represent a novel antidepressant.
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Affiliation(s)
- C E Beyer
- Discovery Neuroscience, Wyeth Research, Princeton, NJ 08543-8000, USA.
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Malkesman O, Pine DS, Tragon T, Austin DR, Henter ID, Chen G, Manji HK. Animal models of suicide-trait-related behaviors. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2009; 30:165-73. [PMID: 19269045 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2009.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2008] [Revised: 01/02/2009] [Accepted: 01/07/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Although antidepressants are moderately effective in treating major depressive disorder (MDD), concerns have arisen that selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are associated with suicidal thinking and behavior, especially in children, adolescents and young adults. Almost no experimental research in model systems has considered the mechanisms by which SSRIs might be associated with this potential side effect in some susceptible individuals. Suicide is a complex behavior and impossible to fully reproduce in an animal model. However, by investigating traits that show strong cross-species parallels in addition to associations with suicide in humans, animal models might elucidate the mechanisms by which SSRIs are associated with suicidal thinking and behavior. Traits linked with suicide in humans that can be successfully modeled in rodents include aggression, impulsivity, irritability and hopelessness/helplessness. Modeling these relevant traits in animals can help to clarify the impact of SSRIs on these traits, suggesting avenues for reducing suicide risk in this vulnerable population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oz Malkesman
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathophysiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Bespalov AY, van Gaalen MM, Gross G. Antidepressant treatment in anxiety disorders. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2009; 2:361-90. [PMID: 21309117 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2009_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Antidepressant drug treatment is the clinical standard of care for all types of anxiety disorders. Broad efficacy of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors suggests the importance of enhanced serotonergic function of the anxiolytic properties of current antidepressants. However, analysis of the preclinical evidence indicates that most conventional "anxiolytic" drug tests are not sensitive to antidepressants. Such dissociation is not surprising because of the traditional approach to validation of preclinical tests that is to a large extent based on establishing face validity as well as sensitivity to benzodiazepine anxiolytics. The present review argues for extending the cognitive model of antidepressant drug action to cover their anxiolytic properties as well. Such an approach is based on ambiguity or uncertainty in a broad sense as the hallmark of human stress that has different expressions ready for experimental modeling. These possibilities include schedule-induced behaviors that are directly based on intermittent reinforcement, conditioning to ambiguous stimuli, social stress where agonistic confrontations are possible but not predictable or controlled by the subject, and an even larger class of behaviors that are critically dependent on the inhibition of the prepotent responses in exchange for the ambiguous possibility of a later gain in reinforcement. Interestingly, in all these cases, antidepressant drug treatment is clearly effective in preclinical laboratory settings. One of the cognitive functions that appears to be affected by antidepressant drugs is inhibitory control. Inhibition of prepotent responding has beneficial effects in the "uncertainty" stress situations discussed above and therefore it is this cognitive function that may be critical for anxiolytic effects of antidepressants and novel anxiolytic drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton Y Bespalov
- Neuroscience Research, GPRD, Abbott, P.O. Box 21 08 05, 67008 Ludwigshafen, Germany.
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Dekeyne A, Mannoury la Cour C, Gobert A, Brocco M, Lejeune F, Serres F, Sharp T, Daszuta A, Soumier A, Papp M, Rivet JM, Flik G, Cremers TI, Muller O, Lavielle G, Millan MJ. S32006, a novel 5-HT2C receptor antagonist displaying broad-based antidepressant and anxiolytic properties in rodent models. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 199:549-68. [PMID: 18523738 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-008-1177-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2008] [Accepted: 04/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Serotonin (5-HT)(2C) receptors are implicated in the control of mood, and their blockade is of potential interest for the management of anxiodepressive states. OBJECTIVES Herein, we characterized the in vitro and in vivo pharmacological profile of the novel benzourea derivative, S32006. MATERIALS AND METHODS Standard cellular, electrophysiological, neurochemical, and behavioral procedures were used. RESULTS S32006 displayed high affinity for human (h)5-HT(2C) and h5-HT(2B) receptors (pK (i)s, 8.4 and 8.0, respectively). By contrast, it had negligible (100-fold lower) affinity for h5-HT(2A) receptors and all other sites examined. In measures of Gq-protein coupling/phospholipase C activation, S32006 displayed potent antagonist properties at h5-HT(2C) receptors (pK (B) values, 8.8/8.2) and h5-HT(2B) receptors (7.8/7.7). In vivo, S32006 dose-dependently (2.5-40.0 mg/kg, i.p. and p.o.) abolished the induction of penile erections and a discriminative stimulus by the 5-HT(2C) receptor agonist, Ro60,0175, in rats. It elevated dialysis levels of noradrenaline and dopamine in the frontal cortex of freely moving rats, and accelerated the firing rate of ventrotegmental dopaminergic and locus ceruleus adrenergic neurons. At similar doses, S32006 decreased immobility in a forced-swim test in rats, reduced the motor depression elicited by 5-HT(2C) and alpha(2)-adrenoceptor agonists, and inhibited both aggressive and marble-burying behavior in mice. Supporting antidepressant properties, chronic (2-5 weeks) administration of S32006 suppressed "anhedonia" in a chronic mild stress procedure and increased both expression of BDNF and cell proliferation in rat dentate gyrus. Finally, S32006 (0.63-40 mg/kg, i.p. and p.o) displayed anxiolytic properties in Vogel conflict and social interaction tests in rats. CONCLUSION S32006 is a potent 5-HT(2C) receptor antagonist, and possesses antidepressant and anxiolytic properties in diverse rodent models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Dekeyne
- Department of Psychopharmacology, Institut de Recherches Servier, Centre de Recherches de Croissy, 125 chemin de Ronde, Croissy/Seine, France.
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Pharmacological validation of a chronic social stress model of depression in rats: effects of reboxetine, haloperidol and diazepam. Behav Pharmacol 2008; 19:183-96. [PMID: 18469536 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0b013e3282fe8871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Chronic social stress is one of the most important factors responsible for precipitation of depressive disorder in humans. In recent years, the impact of social stress on the development of psychopathologies has been thoroughly investigated in preclinical animal studies. We have shown recently that behavioural effects of chronic social stress in rats can be reversed by citalopram and fluoxetine. This study has been designed for further pharmacological validation of the chronic social stress paradigm as a model of depressive symptoms in rats. For this, rats were subjected to 5 weeks of daily social defeat and were in parallel treatment for a clinically relevant period of 4 weeks with the antidepressant drug reboxetine (40 mg/kg/day) and the neuroleptic drug haloperidol (2 mg/kg/day). The anxiolytic diazepam (1 mg/kg) was administered acutely at the end of the stress period. Stress caused decreased locomotor and exploratory behaviours, decreased sucrose preference and increased immobility in the forced swim test, but did not affect behaviour in the elevated plus maze. Four weeks of oral treatment with reboxetine ameliorated the adverse effects of social stress and normalized behaviours related to motivation and reward sensitivity. The treatment with haloperidol worsened the adverse effects of chronic social stress having effects similar to stress on reward and motivation-related behaviours. Diazepam reduced anxiety-related behaviours as measured in elevated plus maze in control animals having no effects on socially stressed individuals. Neither sucrose preference nor performance in forced swim test was affected by diazepam. The effectiveness and selectivity of the treatment with the antidepressant reboxetine in ameliorating socially induced behavioural disturbances supports the validity of the chronic social stress as a model of depressive-like symptoms in rats.
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Höschl C, Svestka J. Escitalopram for the treatment of major depression and anxiety disorders. Expert Rev Neurother 2008; 8:537-52. [PMID: 18416657 DOI: 10.1586/14737175.8.4.537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Escitalopram is the S-enantiomer of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) citalopram, which contains equal amounts of the S- and R-forms in a racemic mixture. Escitalopram is the most selective SSRI, with almost no significant affinity to other tested receptors. It has been demonstrated that it is escitalopram that carries the therapeutic potential of citalopram, and has statistically superior and clinically relevant properties compared with citalopram. Escitalopram is at least as effective in the treatment of depression and anxiety as other SSRIs, as well as venlafaxine, bupropion and duloxetine. Owing to multiple metabolic degrading pathways, the clinically relevant interactions of escitalopram with other drugs are minimal. Compared with other antidepressants, escitalopram is generally better tolerated, its onset of action is relatively fast, and its use may have cost-effectiveness and cost-utility advantages. Escitalopram is an effective first-line option in the management of patients with major depression, including severe forms, and various anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyril Höschl
- Prague Psychiatric Centre, Ustavni 91, 181 03 Praha 8, Czech Republic.
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Long-term citalopram maintenance in mice: selective reduction of alcohol-heightened aggression. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 196:407-16. [PMID: 17952412 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-0972-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2007] [Accepted: 09/27/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) alleviate many affective disturbances in human clinical populations and are used in animal models to study the influence of serotonin (5-HT) on aggressive behavior and impulsivity. OBJECTIVE We hypothesized that long-term SSRI treatment may reduce aggressive behavior escalated by alcohol consumption in mice. Therefore, aggression was tested in male CFW mice to determine whether repeated citalopram (CIT) administration reduces alcohol-heightened aggression. MATERIALS AND METHODS Resident male mice self-administered alcohol by performing an operant response on a panel placed in their home cage that delivered a 6% alcohol solution. Mice repeatedly confronted an intruder 15 min after self-administration of either 1 g/kg alcohol (EtOH) or water (H(2)O). Aggressive behaviors were higher in most mice when tests occurred after EtOH intake relative to H(2)O. Once baseline aggression was established, animals were injected (i.p.) twice daily with 10 mg/kg CIT or saline (SAL) for 32 days. Every 4 days throughout the CIT treatment period, aggressive encounters occurred 6 h after CIT injections, with testing conditions alternating between EtOH and H(2)O intake. RESULTS Aggression was only modestly affected by CIT in the first 2 weeks of treatment. However, by day 17 of CIT treatment, alcohol-heightened aggressive behavior was abolished, while baseline aggression remained stable. These data lend support for the role of the 5-HT transporter in the control of alcohol-related aggressive behavior, and the time course of effects suggests that a change in density of 5HT(1A) autoreceptors is necessary before antidepressant drugs produce beneficial outcomes.
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Summers CH, Winberg S. Interactions between the neural regulation of stress and aggression. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 209:4581-9. [PMID: 17114393 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.02565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Socially aggressive interaction is stressful. What is more, social aggression is stressful for both dominant and subordinate animals. Much of the neurocircuitry for stress and aggression overlap. The pattern of neurochemical and hormonal events stimulated by social interaction make it clear that subtle differences in this pattern of response distinguish social rank. The neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT) responds rapidly to stress, and also appears to play the most important role for inhibitory regulation of aggressive interactions. In addition, the adrenocortical/interrenal steroid hormones corticosterone and cortisol are responsive to stress and influence aggression. However, while 5-HT and glucocorticoids can both be inhibitory to aggression, the relationship between 5-HT and glucocorticoids is not straightforward, and much of the distinctions in function depend upon timing. Neither is inhibitory during the early stressful phase of aggression. This transmitter-hormone combination follows and influences a four-stage functional pattern of effect: (1) predisposed (positively or negatively) toward aggression, (2) motivated toward behavior, (3) responsive to stress (including aggression) and passively allowing aggression, and finally (4) chronically applied 5-HT and glucocorticoids inhibit aggression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cliff H Summers
- Department of Biology, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069 USA.
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Malatynska E, Pinhasov A, Creighton CJ, Crooke JJ, Reitz AB, Brenneman DE, Lubomirski MS. Assessing activity onset time and efficacy for clinically effective antidepressant and antimanic drugs in animal models based on dominant-submissive relationships. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2007; 31:904-19. [PMID: 17597209 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2007] [Revised: 05/14/2007] [Accepted: 05/16/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
There is confusion in the literature on the measurement of the drug activity onset time (AOT) for both clinical and non-clinical studies of antidepressant and antimanic drugs. The questions asked are: How often and at which time points should drug effects be measured? At what level of a drug effect should AOT be determined? Is the placebo (control) effect important for consideration of drug AOT? This paper reviews approaches taken to answer these questions and to assess drug therapeutic AOT. The first part of the paper is devoted to a review of methods used in clinical trials with depression as an indication. The second part is focused on approaches taken in animal models of depression and how they could help in assessing drug AOT. Finally, a summary of pharmacological values on which the AOT depends is presented and a new statistical approach to data analysis method proposed. The allied experimental design for pre-clinical and clinical studies may help to characterize and differentiate AOT for available and new generation of antidepressants and antimanic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Malatynska
- Drug Discovery, CNS Research Team, East Coast Research and Early Development, Johnson & Johnson Pharmaceutical Research & Development, P.O. Box 776, Welsh and McKean Rds., L.L.C., Spring House, PA 19477, USA.
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Einat H. Establishment of a battery of simple models for facets of bipolar disorder: a practical approach to achieve increased validity, better screening and possible insights into endophenotypes of disease. Behav Genet 2006; 37:244-55. [PMID: 16865528 DOI: 10.1007/s10519-006-9093-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2005] [Accepted: 06/15/2006] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The lack of appropriate animal models for bipolar disorder (BPD) hinders the translation of novel molecular and genetic findings into the development of new more efficient treatments. Attempts to develop a comprehensive model for BPD did not result in a practical and valid model and at present most studies utilize a limited number of models for specific components of the disorder. Whereas there is a higher availability of models for the depression pole of BPD, only a few models represent the manic pole with the most frequently used being psychostimulant-induced hyperactivity. This last model had been important in studies of the disease and has some validity but it is clear that by itself cannot be considered to represent mania. Additional models for facets of BPD are needed to allow better screening of new drugs and new mutant mice. Such models may also support the exploration of endophenotypes of BPD and the mechanisms of the disease. An advantage of a battery approach is that each model can be only partially valid when used alone but the combination of a few models may result in strong validity. The present study suggests that such a battery can be based on existing models previously developed in the context of studying normal behavior or other disorders after an initial validation in the context of BPD. An example for this idea is described using the resident-intruder test for aggression. Present results show that 3 weeks oral treatment with 1.2-2.4% lithium (increasing doses), or 20 g/kg daily dose of valproate, significantly reduced aggressive behavior in resident mice without affecting non-aggressive social interactions. Accordingly, it is suggested that the simplified resident-intruder paradigm may model the aggression related to mania as part of a test battery for facets of BPD. It is further speculated that, pending further research, this paradigm can be combined with additional methods to explore changes in the LHPA axis that may be linked to an important endophenotype of BPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haim Einat
- College of Pharmacy, Duluth, University of Minnesota, 376 Kirby Plaza, 1208 Kirby Drive, Duluth, MN 55812, USA.
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McArthur R, Borsini F. Animal models of depression in drug discovery: a historical perspective. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2006; 84:436-52. [PMID: 16844210 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2006] [Revised: 05/31/2006] [Accepted: 06/06/2006] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Over the course of the last 50 years many models of major depressive disorder have been developed on the basis of theoretical aspects of this disorder. These models and procedures have been crucial in the discovery and development of clinically-effective drugs. Notwithstanding, there is presently great concern about the discrepancy between positive outcomes of new candidate drugs in animal models and apparent lack of efficacy in humans i.e., the predictive validity of animal models. Some reasons for this concern lie in the over-reliance in the face value of behavioural models, design of clinical trials, placebo responses, genetic variations in response to drugs, species differences in bioavailability and toxicology, and not least, disinterest of pharmaceutical sponsors to continue developing certain drugs. Present model development is focusing on endophenotypic aspects of behaviours rather than trying to model whole syndromes. This essay traces the origins and theoretical bases of our animal models of depression or depressed-like behaviours in humans and indicates how they have evolved from behavioural assays used to measure the potency and efficacy of potential candidate drugs to tools by which endophenotypes of depression may be identified and verified pharmacologically. A cautionary note is included though to indicate that the true predictive validity of our models will not be fully assessed until we can determine the attrition rate of molecules discovered from new drug targets translating into clinically-effective drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert McArthur
- McArthur and Associates GmbH, Ramsteinerstrasse 28, CH-4052 Basel, Switzerland.
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