Drug discovery targeting human 5-HT(2C) receptors: residues S3.36 and Y7.43 impact ligand-binding pocket structure via hydrogen bond formation

Analysing the effect caused by increasing the molecular volume in M1-AChR receptor agonists and antagonists: a structural and computational study

M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (M1-AChR), a member of the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) family, plays a crucial role in learning and memory, making it an important drug target for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and schizophrenia. M1-AChR activation and deactivation have shown modifying effects in AD and PD preclinical models, respectively. However, understanding the pharmacology associated with M1-AChR activation or deactivation is complex, because of the low selectivity among muscarinic subtypes, hampering their therapeutic applications. In this regard, we constructed two quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models, one for M1-AChR agonists (total and partial), and the other for the antagonists. The binding mode of 59 structurally different compounds, including agonists and antagonists with experimental binding affinity values (pKi), were analyzed employing computational molecular docking over different structures of M1-AChR. Furthermore, we considered the interaction energy (Einter), the number of rotatable bonds (NRB), and lipophilicity (ilogP) for the construction of the QSAR model for agonists (R2 = 89.64, QLMO2 = 78, and Qext2 = 79.1). For the QSAR model of antagonists (R2 = 88.44, QLMO2 = 82, and Qext2 = 78.1) we considered the Einter, the fraction of sp3 carbons fCsp3, and lipophilicity (MlogP). Our results suggest that the ligand volume is a determinant to establish its biological activity (agonist or antagonist), causing changes in binding energy, and determining the affinity for M1-AChR.

Tyrosine 7.43 is important for mu-opioid receptor downstream signaling pathways activated by fentanyl

G protein–coupled receptors can signal through both G proteins and ß-arrestin2. For the µ-opioid receptor (MOR), early experimental evidence from a single study suggested that G protein signaling mediates analgesia and sedation, whereas ß-arrestin signaling mediates respiratory depression and constipation. Then, receptor mutations were used to clarify which residues interact with ligands to selectively regulate signals in a ligand-specific manner. However, there is no systematic study on how to determine these residues and clarify the molecular mechanism of their influence on signal pathways. We have therefore used molecular docking to predict the amino acid sites that affect the binding of ligands and MOR. Then, the corresponding sites were mutated to determine the effect of the structural determinant of MOR on G_i/o protein and ß-arrestin pathways. The pharmacological and animal behavioral experiments in combination with molecular dynamics simulations were used to elucidate the molecular mechanism of key residues governing the signaling. Without affecting ligand binding to MOR, MOR^Y7.43A attenuated the activation of both G_i/o protein and ß-arrestin signaling pathways stimulated by fentanyl, whereas it did not change these two pathways stimulated by morphine. Likewise, the activation peak time of extracellular regulated protein kinases was significantly prolonged at MOR^Y7.43A compared with that at MOR^wildtype stimulated by fentanyl, but there was no difference stimulated by morphine. In addition, MOR^Y7.43A significantly enhanced analgesia by fentanyl but not by morphine in the mice behavioral experiment. Furthermore, the molecular dynamics simulations showed that H6 moves toward the cellular membrane. H6 of the fentanyl–Y7.43A system moved outward more than that in the morphine–Y7.43A system. Y7.43 mutation disrupted hydrophobic interactions between W6.48 and Y7.43 in the fentanyl–Y7.43A system but not in the morphine–Y7.43A system. Our results have disclosed novel mechanisms of Y7.43 mutation affecting MOR signaling pathways. Y7.43 mutation reduced the activation of the G_i/o protein pathway and blocked the ß-arrestin2 recruitment, increased the H6 outward movement of MOR, and disrupted hydrophobic interactions. This may be responsible for the enhanced fentanyl analgesia. These findings are conducive to designing new drugs from the perspective of ligand and receptor binding, and Y7.43 is also expected to be a key site to structure optimization of synthesized compounds.

5-HT2C agonists and antagonists block different components of behavioral responses to potential, distal, and proximal threat in zebrafish

Serotonin (5-HT) receptors have been implicated in responses to aversive stimuli in mammals and fish, but its precise role is still unknown. Moreover, since at least seven families of 5-HT receptors exist in vertebrates, the role of specific receptors is still debated. Aversive stimuli can be classified as indicators of proximal, distal, or potential threat, initiating responses that are appropriate for each of these threat levels. Responses to potential threat usually involve cautious exploration and increased alertness, while responses to distal and proximal threat involve a fight-flight-freeze reaction. We exposed adult zebrafish to a conspecific alarm substance (CAS) and observed behavior during (distal threat) and after (potential threat) exposure, and treated with the 5-HT_2C receptor agonists MK-212 or WAY-161503 or with the antagonist RS-102221. The agonists blocked CAS-elicited defensive behavior (distal threat), but not post-exposure increases in defensive behavior (potential threat), suggesting inhibition of responses to distal threat. MK-212 blocked changes in freezing elicited by acute restraint stress, a model of proximal threat, while RS-102221 blocked changes in geotaxis elicited this stressor. We also found that RS-102221, a 5-HT_2C receptor antagonist, produced small effect on behavior during and after exposure to CAS. Preprint: https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.10.04.324202; Data and scripts: https://github.com/lanec-unifesspa/5-HT-CAS/tree/master/data/5HT2C.

International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. CX. Classification of Receptors for 5-hydroxytryptamine; Pharmacology and Function

5-HT receptors expressed throughout the human body are targets for established therapeutics and various drugs in development. Their diversity of structure and function reflects the important role 5-HT receptors play in physiologic and pathophysiological processes. The present review offers a framework for the official receptor nomenclature and a detailed understanding of each of the 14 5-HT receptor subtypes, their roles in the systems of the body, and, where appropriate, the (potential) utility of therapeutics targeting these receptors. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This review provides a comprehensive account of the classification and function of 5-hydroxytryptamine receptors, including how they are targeted for therapeutic benefit.

Serotonergic Psychedelics: Experimental Approaches for Assessing Mechanisms of Action

Recent, well-controlled - albeit small-scale - clinical trials show that serotonergic psychedelics, including psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide, possess great promise for treating psychiatric disorders, including treatment-resistant depression. Additionally, fresh results from a deluge of clinical neuroimaging studies are unveiling the dynamic effects of serotonergic psychedelics on functional activity within, and connectivity across, discrete neural systems. These observations have led to testable hypotheses regarding neural processing mechanisms that contribute to psychedelic effects and therapeutic benefits. Despite these advances and a plethora of preclinical and clinical observations supporting a central role for brain serotonin 5-HT2A receptors in producing serotonergic psychedelic effects, lingering and new questions about mechanisms abound. These chiefly pertain to molecular neuropharmacology. This chapter is devoted to illuminating and discussing such questions in the context of preclinical experimental approaches for studying mechanisms of action of serotonergic psychedelics, classic and new.

Ligand-directed serotonin 5-HT2C receptor desensitization and sensitization

Exposure of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) to agonists can desensitize receptor signaling and lead to drug tolerance, whereas inverse agonists can sensitize signaling. For example, activation of serotonin 5-HT_2C GPCRs is pharmacotherapeutic for obesity, but there is tolerance to the anorectic effect of the only approved 5-HT_2C agonist, lorcaserin. We tested the hypothesis that different agonists or inverse agonists differentially desensitize or sensitize, respectively, canonical 5-HT_2C-mediated activation of phospholipase C (PLC) signaling in vitro. Lorcaserin, which displays potency and efficacy equal to 5-HT, desensitized the 5-HT_2C receptor significantly more than 5-HT (p<0.05). Agonist chemotypes such as 2-aminotetralins, with similar potency but lower efficacy than 5-HT, produced little 5-HT_2C desensitization. The piperazine agonist 1-(3-chlorophenyl)piperazine (mCPP), with lower potency but similar efficacy as 5-HT, elicited desensitization indistinguishable from 5-HT, while the piperazine agonist aripiprazole, with lower potency and efficacy, did not desensitize 5-HT_2C-PLC signaling. Several 5-HT_2C agonists also were assessed for β-arrestin recruitment-lorcaserin was a 'super-agonist', but a 2-aminotetralin and aripiprazole had nil activity, suggesting they are biased towards 5-HT_2C-PLC signaling. We observed robust positive correlations between the magnitude of 5-HT_2C desensitization and agonist efficacy to stimulate PLC or to recruit β-arrestin. In contrast, different inverse agonists caused different magnitudes of 5-HT_2C sensitization that did not correlate with efficacy (or potency) to inhibit constitutive 5-HT_2C-PLC signaling.  Assessment of the 5-HT_2C-S407A point-mutated receptor indicated this residue's involvement in ligand-dependent desensitization, but we did not observe a role for protein kinase C.These data show that ligand structure uniquely impacts 5-HT_2C desensitization and sensitization processes..

Aminergic GPCR-Ligand Interactions: A Chemical and Structural Map of Receptor Mutation Data

The aminergic family of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) plays an important role in various diseases and represents a major drug discovery target class. Structure determination of all major aminergic subfamilies has enabled structure-based ligand design for these receptors. Site-directed mutagenesis data provides an invaluable complementary source of information for elucidating the structural determinants of binding of different ligand chemotypes. The current study provides a comparative analysis of 6692 mutation data points on 34 aminergic GPCR subtypes, covering the chemical space of 540 unique ligands from mutagenesis experiments and information from experimentally determined structures of 52 distinct aminergic receptor-ligand complexes. The integrated analysis enables detailed investigation of structural receptor-ligand interactions and assessment of the transferability of combined binding mode and mutation data across ligand chemotypes and receptor subtypes. An overview is provided of the possibilities and limitations of using mutation data to guide the design of novel aminergic receptor ligands.

Mutagenesis Analysis Reveals Distinct Amino Acids of the Human Serotonin 5-HT2C Receptor Underlying the Pharmacology of Distinct Ligands

While exploring the structure-activity relationship of 4-phenyl-2-dimethylaminotetralins (PATs) at serotonin 5-HT_2C receptors, we discovered that relatively minor modification of PAT chemistry impacts function at 5-HT_2C receptors. In HEK293 cells expressing human 5-HT_2C-INI receptors, for example, (-)-trans-3'-Br-PAT and (-)-trans-3'-Cl-PAT are agonists regarding Gα_q-inositol phosphate signaling, whereas (-)-trans-3'-CF₃-PAT is an inverse agonist. To investigate the ligand-receptor interactions that govern this change in function, we performed site-directed mutagenesis of 14 amino acids of the 5-HT_2C receptor based on molecular modeling and reported G protein-coupled receptor crystal structures, followed by molecular pharmacology studies. We found that S3.36, T3.37, and F5.47 in the orthosteric binding pocket are critical for affinity (K_i) of all PATs tested, we also found that F6.44, M6.47, C7.45, and S7.46 are primarily involved in regulating EC/IC₅₀ functional potencies of PATs. We discovered that when residue S5.43, N6.55, or both are mutated to alanine, (-)-trans-3'-CF₃-PAT switches from inverse agonist to agonist function, and when N6.55 is mutated to leucine, (-)-trans-3'-Br-PAT switches from agonist to inverse agonist function. Notably, most point-mutations that affected PAT pharmacology did not significantly alter affinity (K_D) of the antagonist radioligand [³H]mesulergine, but every mutation tested negatively impacted serotonin binding. Also, amino acid mutations differentially affected the pharmacology of other commercially available 5-HT_2C ligands tested. Collectively, the data show that functional outcomes shared by different ligands are mediated by different amino acids and that some 5-HT_2C receptor residues important for pharmacology of one ligand are not necessarily important for another ligand.

Application of an Integrated GPCR SAR-Modeling Platform To Explain the Activation Selectivity of Human 5-HT2C over 5-HT2B

Agonism of the 5-HT2C serotonin receptor has been associated with the treatment of a number of diseases including obesity, psychiatric disorders, sexual health, and urology. However, the development of effective 5-HT2C agonists has been hampered by the difficulty in obtaining selectivity over the closely related 5-HT2B receptor, agonism of which is associated with irreversible cardiac valvulopathy. Understanding how to design selective agonists requires exploration of the structural features governing the functional uniqueness of the target receptor relative to related off targets. X-ray crystallography, the major experimental source of structural information, is a slow and challenging process for integral membrane proteins, and so is currently not feasible for every GPCR or GPCR-ligand complex. Therefore, the integration of existing ligand SAR data with GPCR modeling can be a practical alternative to provide this essential structural insight. To demonstrate this, we integrated SAR data from 39 azepine series 5-HT2C agonists, comprising both selective and unselective examples, with our hierarchical GPCR modeling protocol (HGMP). Through this work we have been able to demonstrate how relatively small differences in the amino acid sequences of GPCRs can lead to significant differences in secondary structure and function, as supported by experimental data. In particular, this study suggests that conformational differences in the tilt of TM7 between 5-HT2B and 5-HT2C, which result from differences in interhelical interactions, may be the major source of selectivity in G-protein activation between these two receptors. Our approach also demonstrates how the use of GPCR models in conjunction with SAR data can be used to explain activity cliffs.

Discovery of novel potent and selective ligands for 5-HT2A receptor with quinazoline scaffold

A series of compounds with quinazoline scaffold were designed, synthesized and evaluated as novel potent 5-HT2A receptor ligands. N-(4-Chlorophenyl)-2-(piperazin-1-yl)quinazolin-4-amine (5o) has a Ki value of 14.04 ± 0.21 nM, with a selectivity more than 10,000 fold over 5-HT1A receptors (D1 and D2-like receptors). The functional assay showed that this compound is an antagonist to 5-HT2A receptor with an IC50 value of 1.66 μM.

An Orally Active Phenylaminotetralin-Chemotype Serotonin 5-HT7 and 5-HT1A Receptor Partial Agonist that Corrects Motor Stereotypy in Mouse Models

Stereotypy (e.g., repetitive hand waving) is a key phenotype of autism spectrum disorder, Fragile X and Rett syndromes, and other neuropsychiatric disorders, and its severity correlates with cognitive and attention deficits. There are no effective treatments, however, for stereotypy. Perturbation of serotonin (5-HT) neurotransmission contributes to stereotypy, suggesting that distinct 5-HT receptors may be pharmacotherapeutic targets to treat stereotypy and related neuropsychiatric symptoms. For example, preclinical studies indicate that 5-HT7 receptor activation corrects deficits in mouse models of Fragile X and Rett syndromes, and clinical trials for autism are underway with buspirone, a 5-HT1A partial agonist with relevant affinity at 5-HT7 receptors. Herein, we report the synthesis, in vitro molecular pharmacology, behavioral pharmacology, and pharmacokinetic parameters in mice after subcutaneous and oral administration of (+)-5-(2'-fluorophenyl)-N,N-dimethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-amine ((+)-5-FPT), a new, dual partial agonist targeting both 5-HT7 (Ki = 5.8 nM, EC50 = 34 nM) and 5-HT1A (Ki = 22 nM, EC50 = 40 nM) receptors. Three unique, heterogeneous mouse models were used to assess the efficacy of (+)-5-FPT to reduce stereotypy: idiopathic jumping in C58/J mice, repetitive body rotations in C57BL/6J mice treated with the NMDA antagonist, MK-801, and repetitive head twitching in C57BL/6J mice treated with the 5-HT2 agonist, DOI. Systemic (+)-5-FPT potently and efficaciously reduced or eliminated stereotypy in each of the mouse models without altering locomotor behavior on its own, and additional tests showed that (+)-5-FPT, at the highest behaviorally active dose tested, enhanced social interaction and did not cause behaviors indicative of serotonin syndrome. These data suggest that (+)-5-FPT is a promising medication for treating stereotypy in psychiatric disorders.

Novel 4-substituted-N,N-dimethyltetrahydronaphthalen-2-amines: synthesis, affinity, and in silico docking studies at serotonin 5-HT2-type and histamine H1 G protein-coupled receptors

Syntheses were undertaken of derivatives of (2S,4R)-(-)-trans-4-phenyl-N,N-dimethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-amine (4-phenyl-2-dimethylaminotetralin, PAT), a stereospecific agonist at the serotonin 5-HT2C G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), with inverse agonist activity at 5-HT2A and 5-HT2B GPCRs. Molecular changes were made at the PAT C(4)-position, while preserving N,N-dimethyl substitution at the 2-position as well as trans-stereochemistry, structural features previously shown to be optimal for 5-HT2 binding. Affinities of analogs were determined at recombinant human 5-HT2 GPCRs in comparison to the phylogenetically closely-related histamine H1 GPCR, and in silico ligand docking studies were conducted at receptor molecular models to help interpret pharmacological results and guide future ligand design. In most cases, C(4)-substituted PAT analogs exhibited the same stereoselectivity ([-]-trans>[+]-trans) as the parent PAT across 5-HT2 and H1 GPCRs, albeit, with variable receptor selectivity. 4-(4'-substituted)-PAT analogs, however, demonstrated reversed stereoselectivity ([2S,4R]-[+]-trans>[2S,4R]-[-]-trans), with absolute configuration confirmed by single X-ray crystallographic data for the 4-(4'-Cl)-PAT analog. Pharmacological affinity results and computational results herein support further PAT drug development studies and provide a basis for predicting and interpreting translational results, including, for (+)-trans-4-(4'-Cl)-PAT and (-)-trans-4-(3'-Br)-PAT that were previously shown to be more potent and efficacious than their corresponding enantiomers in rodent models of psychoses, psychostimulant-induced behaviors, and compulsive feeding ('binge-eating').

Insights into the influence of 5-HT2c aminoacidic variants with the inhibitory action of serotonin inverse agonists and antagonists

Specific modulation of serotonin 5-HT(2C) G protein-coupled receptors may be therapeutic for obesity and neuropsychiatric disorders. The different efficacy of drugs targeting these receptors are due to the presence of genetic variants in population and this variability is still hard to predict. Therefore, in order to administer the more suitable drug, taking into account patient genotype, it is necessary to know the molecular effects of its gene nucleotide variations. In this work, starting from an accurate 3D model of 5-HT(2C), we focus on the prediction of the possible effect of some single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) producing amino acidic changes in proximity of the 5-HT(2C) ligand binding site. Particularly we chose a set of 5-HT(2C) inverse agonists and antagonists which have high inhibitory activity. After prediction of the structures of the receptor-ligand complexes using molecular docking tools, we performed full atom molecular dynamics simulations in explicit lipid bilayer monitoring the interactions between ligands and trans-membrane helices of the receptor, trying to infer relations with their biological activity. Serotonin, as the natural ligand was chosen as reference compound to advance a hypothesis able to explain the receptor inhibition mechanism. Indeed we observed a different behavior between the antagonists and inverse agonist with respect to serotonin or unbounded receptor, which could be responsible, even if not directly, of receptor's inactivation. Furthermore, we analyzed five aminoacidic variants of 5HT(2C) receptor observing alterations in the interactions between ligands and receptor which give rise to changes of free energy values for every complex considered.

Aromatic interactions impact ligand binding and function at serotonin 5-HT2C G protein-coupled receptors: Receptor homology modeling, ligand docking, and molecular dynamics results validated by experimental studies

The serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) 5-HT2 G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family consists of types 2A, 2B, and 2C that share ~75% transmembrane (TM) sequence identity. Agonists for 5-HT2C receptors are under development for psychoses, whereas, at 5-HT2A receptors, antipsychotic effects are associated with antagonists-in fact, 5-HT2A agonists can cause hallucinations and 5-HT2B agonists cause cardiotoxicity. It is known that 5-HT2A TM6 residues W6.48, F6.51, and F6.52 impact ligand binding and function, however, ligand interactions with these residues at the 5-HT2C receptor has not been reported. To predict and validate molecular determinants for 5-HT2C-specific activation, results from receptor homology modeling, ligand docking, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation studies were compared with experimental results for ligand binding and function at wild type and W6.48A, F6.51A, and F6.52A point-mutated 5-HT2C receptors.

Molecular pharmacology and ligand docking studies reveal a single amino acid difference between mouse and human serotonin 5-HT2A receptors that impacts behavioral translation of novel 4-phenyl-2-dimethylaminotetralin ligands

During translational studies to develop 4-phenyl-2-dimethylaminotetralin (PAT) compounds for neuropsychiatric disorders, the (2R,4S)-trans-(+)- and (2S,4R)-trans-(-)-enantiomers of the analog 6-hydroxy-7-chloro-PAT (6-OH-7-Cl-PAT) demonstrated unusual pharmacology at serotonin (5-HT) 5-HT2 G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The enantiomers had similar affinities (Ki) at human (h) 5-HT2A receptors (≈ 70 nM). In an in vivo mouse model of 5-HT2A receptor activation [(±)-(2,5)-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine (DOI)-elicited head twitch], however, (-)-6-OH-7-Cl-PAT was about 5-fold more potent than the (+)-enantiomer at attenuating the DOI-elicited response. It was discovered that (+)-6-OH-7-Cl-PAT (only) had ≈ 40-fold-lower affinity at mouse (m) compared with h5-HT2A receptors. Molecular modeling and computational ligand docking studies indicated that the 6-OH moiety of (+)- but not (-)-6-OH-7-Cl-PAT could form a hydrogen bond with serine residue 5.46 of the h5-HT2A receptor. The m5-HT2A as well as m5-HT2B, h5-HT2B, m5-HT2C, and h5-HT2C receptors have alanine at position 5.46, obviating this interaction; (+)-6-OH-7-Cl-PAT also showed ≈ 50-fold lower affinity than (-)-6-OH-7-Cl-PAT at m5-HT2C and h5-HT2C receptors. Mutagenesis studies confirmed that 5-HT2A S5.46 is critical for (+)- but not (-)-6-OH-7-Cl-PAT binding, as well as function. The (+)-6-OH-7-Cl-PAT enantiomer showed partial agonist effects at h5-HT2A wild-type (WT) and m5-HT2A A5.46S point-mutated receptors but did not activate m5-HT2A WT and h5-HT2A S5.46A point-mutated receptors, or h5-HT2B, h5-HT2C, and m5-HT2C receptors; (-)-6-OH-7-Cl-PAT did not activate any of the 5-HT2 receptors. Experiments also included the (2R,4S)-trans-(+)- and (2S,4R)-trans-(-)-enantiomers of 6-methoxy-7-chloro-PAT to validate hydrogen bonding interactions proposed for the corresponding 6-OH analogs. Results indicate that PAT ligand three-dimensional structure impacts target receptor binding and translational outcomes, supporting the hypothesis that GPCR ligand structure governs orthosteric binding pocket molecular determinants and resulting pharmacology.

Molecular and behavioral pharmacology of two novel orally-active 5HT2 modulators: potential utility as antipsychotic medications

BACKGROUND

Desired serotonin 5HT2 receptor pharmacology for treatment of psychoses is 5HT2A antagonism and/or 5HT2C agonism. No selective 5HT2A antagonist has been approved for psychosis and the only approved 5HT2C agonist (for obesity) also activates 5HT2A and 5HT2B receptors, which can lead to clinical complications. Studies herein tested the hypothesis that a dual-function 5HT2A antagonist/5HT2C agonist that does not activate 5HT2B receptors would be suitable for development as an antipsychotic drug, without liability for weight gain.

METHODS

The novel compounds (+)- and (-)-trans-4-(4'-chlorophenyl)-N,N-dimethyl-2-aminotetralin (p-Cl-PAT) were synthesized, characterized in vitro for affinity and functional activity at human 5HT2 receptors, and administered by intraperitoneal (i.p.) and oral (gavage) routes to mice in behavioral paradigms that assessed antipsychotic efficacy and effects on feeding behavior.

RESULTS

(+)- and (-)-p-Cl-PAT activated 5HT2C receptors, with (+)-p-Cl-PAT being 12-times more potent, consistent with its higher affinity across 5HT2 receptors. Neither p-Cl-PAT enantiomer activated 5HT2A or 5HT2B receptors at concentrations up to 300-times greater than their respective affinity (Ki), and (+)-p-Cl-PAT was shown to be a 5HT2A competitive antagonist. When administered i.p. or orally, (+)- and (-)-p-Cl-PAT attenuated the head-twitch response (HTR) in mice elicited by the 5HT2 agonist (-)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine (DOI) and reduced intake of a highly palatable food in non-food-deprived mice, with (+)-p-Cl-PAT being more potent across behavioral assays.

CONCLUSIONS

The novel in vitro pharmacology of (+)-p-Cl-PAT (5HT2A antagonism/5HT2C agonism without activation of 5HT2B) translated in vivo to an orally-active drug candidate with preclinical efficacy to treat psychoses without liability for weight gain.

Support for 5-HT2C receptor functional selectivity in vivo utilizing structurally diverse, selective 5-HT2C receptor ligands and the 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine elicited head-twitch response model

There are seemingly conflicting data in the literature regarding the role of serotonin (5-HT) 5-HT2C receptors in the mouse head-twitch response (HTR) elicited by the hallucinogenic 5-HT2A/2B/2C receptor agonist 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine (DOI). Namely, both 5-HT2C receptor agonists and antagonists, regarding 5-HT2C receptor-mediated Gq-phospholipase C (PLC) signaling, reportedly attenuate the HTR response. The present experiments tested the hypothesis that both classes of 5-HT2C receptor compounds could attenuate the DOI-elicited-HTR in a single strain of mice, C57Bl/6J. The expected results were considered in accordance with ligand functional selectivity. Commercially-available 5-HT2C agonists (CP 809101, Ro 60-0175, WAY 161503, mCPP, and 1-methylpsilocin), novel 4-phenyl-2-N,N-dimethyl-aminotetralin (PAT)-type 5-HT2C agonists (with 5-HT2A/2B antagonist activity), and antagonists selective for 5-HT2A (M100907), 5-HT2C (SB-242084), and 5-HT2B/2C (SB-206553) receptors attenuated the DOI-elicited-HTR. In contrast, there were differential effects on locomotion across classes of compounds. The 5-HT2C agonists and M100907 decreased locomotion, SB-242084 increased locomotion, SB-206553 resulted in dose-dependent biphasic effects on locomotion, and the PATs did not alter locomotion. In vitro molecular pharmacology studies showed that 5-HT2C agonists potent for attenuating the DOI-elicited-HTR also reduced the efficacy of DOI to activate mouse 5-HT2C receptor-mediated PLC signaling in HEK cells. Although there were differences in affinities of a few compounds at mouse compared to human 5-HT2A or 5-HT2C receptors, all compounds tested retained their selectivity for either receptor, regardless of receptor species. Results indicate that 5-HT2C receptor agonists and antagonists attenuate the DOI-elicited-HTR in C57Bl/6J mice, and suggest that structurally diverse 5-HT2C ligands result in different 5-HT2C receptor signaling outcomes compared to DOI.

Molecular Determinants for Ligand Binding at Serotonin 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C GPCRs: Experimental Affinity Results Analyzed by Molecular Modeling and Ligand Docking Studies

Ligands that activate the serotonin 5-HT_2C G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) may be therapeutic for psychoses, addiction, and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Ligands that are antagonists at the closely related 5-HT_2A GPCR also may treat neuropsychiatric disorders; in contrast, 5-HT_2A activation may cause hallucinations. 5-HT_2C-specific agonist drug design is challenging because 5-HT₂ GPCRs share 80% transmembrane (TM) homology, same second messenger signaling, and no crystal structures are reported. To help delineate molecular determinants underlying differential binding and activation of 5-HT₂ GPCRs, 5-HT_2A, and 5-HT_2C homology models were built from the β₂-adrenergic GPCR crystal structure and equilibrated in a lipid phosphatidyl choline bilayer performing molecular dynamics simulations. Ligand docking studies at the 5-HT₂ receptor models were conducted with the (2R, 4S)- and (2S, 4R)-enantiomers of the novel 5-HT_2C agonist/5-HT_2A/2B antagonist trans-4-phenyl-N,N-dimethyl-2-aminotetralin (PAT) and its 4'-chlorophenyl congners. Results indicate PAT-5-HT₂ molecular interactions especially in TM domain V are important for the (2R, 4S) enantiomer, whereas, TM domain VI and VII interactions are more important for the (2S, 4R) enantiomer.

Molecular determinants of ligand binding at the human histamine H1 receptor: Site-directed mutagenesis results analyzed with ligand docking and molecular dynamics studies at H1 homology and crystal structure models

The human histamine H₁ G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) is an important drug target for inflammatory, sleep, and other neuropsychiatric disorders. To delineate molecular determinants for ligand binding for drug discovery purposes, human H₁ receptor models were built by homology to the crystal structure of the human β₂ adrenoceptor (β₂AR) and from the recently reported crystal structure of the human H₁ receptor complex with doxepin at 3.1 Å (PDB code 3RZE). Ligand affinity of histamine and the H₁ antagonists mepyramine and (2S, 4R)-(-)-trans-4-phenyl-2-N, N-dimethylaminotetralin (PAT) at wild type and point-mutated (D3.32A, Y3.33A, W4.56A, F5.47A, W6.48A, Y6.51A, F6.52A, F6.55A, Y7.43A) human H₁ receptors were determined experimentally and results analyzed by ligand docking and molecular dynamic studies at WT and point-mutated H₁ receptor models. Differences in ligand binding affinities correlated to differences in ligand binding modes at models built according to homology or crystal structure, indicating, both models are accurate templates for predicting ligand affinity for H₁ drug design.

Head-twitch response in rodents induced by the hallucinogen 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine: a comprehensive history, a re-evaluation of mechanisms, and its utility as a model

Two primary animal models persist for assessing hallucinogenic potential of novel compounds and for examining the pharmacological and neurobiological substrates underlying the actions of classical hallucinogens, the two-lever drug discrimination procedure and the drug-induced head-twitch response (HTR) in rodents. The substituted amphetamine hallucinogen, serotonin 2 (5-HT(2) ) receptor agonist, 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine (DOI) has emerged as the most popular pharmacological tool used in HTR studies of hallucinogens. Synthesizing classic, recent, and relatively overlooked findings, addressing ostensibly conflicting observations, and considering contemporary theories in receptor and behavioural pharmacology, this review provides an up-to-date and comprehensive synopsis of DOI and the HTR model, from neural mechanisms to utility for understanding psychiatric diseases. Also presented is support for the argument that, although both the two-lever drug discrimination and the HTR models in rodents are useful for uncovering receptors, interacting proteins, intracellular signalling pathways, and neurochemical processes affected by DOI and related classical hallucinogens, results from both models suggest they are not reporting hallucinogenic experiences in animals.