The effect of activation on the electrochemical behaviour of graphite felt towards the Fe3+/Fe2+ redox electrode reaction

Review of the Development of First-Generation Redox Flow Batteries: Iron-Chromium System

The iron-chromium redox flow battery (ICRFB) is considered the first true RFB and utilizes low-cost, abundant iron and chromium chlorides as redox-active materials, making it one of the most cost-effective energy storage systems. ICRFBs were pioneered and studied extensively by NASA and Mitsui in Japan in the 1970-1980s, and extensive studies on ICRFBs have been carried out over the past few decades. In addition, ICRFB is considered to be one of the most promising directions for cost-effective and large-scale energy storage applications, as its cost can theoretically be lower than that of zinc-bromine and all-vanadium RFBs, giving it the potential for large-scale promotion. With the resolution of problems such as hydrogen evolution and electrolyte intermixing, the ICRFB technology is moving out of the laboratory and striving for greater power and more stable industrialization requirements. This Review summarizes the history, development, and research status of key components (carbon-based electrode, electrolyte, and membranes) in the ICRFB system, aiming to give a brief guide to researchers who are involved in the related subject.

High-Performance Chemically Regenerative Redox Fuel Cells Using a NO3- /NO Regeneration Reaction

In this study, we proposed high-performance chemically regenerative redox fuel cells (CRRFCs) using NO₃^- /NO with a nitrogen-doped carbon-felt electrode and a chemical regeneration reaction of NO to NO₃^- via O₂ . The electrochemical cell using the nitrate reduction to NO at the cathode on the carbon felt and oxidation of H₂ as a fuel at the anode showed a maximal power density of 730 mW cm^-2 at 80 °C and twofold higher power density of 512 mW cm^-2 at 0.8 V, than the target power density of 250 mW cm^-2 at 0.8 V in the H₂ /O₂ proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). During the operation of the CRRFCs with the chemical regeneration reactor for 30 days, the CRRFCs maintained 60 % of the initial performance with a regeneration efficiency of about 92.9 % and immediately returned to the initial value when supplied with fresh HNO₃ .

Functional materials for rechargeable batteries

There is an ever-growing demand for rechargeable batteries with reversible and efficient electrochemical energy storage and conversion. Rechargeable batteries cover applications in many fields, which include portable electronic consumer devices, electric vehicles, and large-scale electricity storage in smart or intelligent grids. The performance of rechargeable batteries depends essentially on the thermodynamics and kinetics of the electrochemical reactions involved in the components (i.e., the anode, cathode, electrolyte, and separator) of the cells. During the past decade, extensive efforts have been dedicated to developing advanced batteries with large capacity, high energy and power density, high safety, long cycle life, fast response, and low cost. Here, recent progress in functional materials applied in the currently prevailing rechargeable lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, lead acid, vanadium redox flow, and sodium-sulfur batteries is reviewed. The focus is on research activities toward the ionic, atomic, or molecular diffusion and transport; electron transfer; surface/interface structure optimization; the regulation of the electrochemical reactions; and the key materials and devices for rechargeable batteries.

Anomalous electrochemical dissolution and passivation of iron growth catalysts in carbon nanotubes

Catalytically synthesized carbon nanotubes (CNTs) such as those prepared via chemical vapor deposition (CVD) contain metallic impurities including Fe, Ni, Co, and Mo. Transition metal contaminants such as Fe can participate in redox cycling reactions that catalyze the generation of reactive oxygen species and other products. Through the nature of the CVD growth process, metallic nanoparticles become encased within the CNT graphene lattice and may still be chemically accessible and participate in redox chemistry, especially when these materials are utilized as electrodes in electrochemical applications. We demonstrate that metallic impurities can be selectively dissolved and/or passivated during electrochemical potential cycling. Anomalous Fe dissolution and passivation behavior is observed in neutral (pH=6.40+/-0.03) aqueous solutions when using multiwalled CNTs prepared from CVD. Fe particles contained within these CNTs display intriguing, potential-dependent Fe redox activity that varies with supporting electrolyte composition. In neutral solutions containing dibasic sodium phosphate, sodium acetate, and sodium citrate, FeII dissolution and surface confined FeII/III redox activity are significant despite Fe being encapsulated within CNT graphene layers. However, no apparent Fe dissolution is observed in 1 M potassium nitrate solutions, suggesting that the electrolyte composition plays an important role in observing FeII dissolution, passivation, and surface confined FeII/III redox activity. Between potentials of 0 and -1.1 V versus Hg/Hg2SO4, the primary redox-active Fe species are surface FeII/III oxides/oxyhydroxides. This FeII/III surface oxide redox chemistry can be completely suppressed by passivating Fe through repeated cycling of the CNTs in supporting electrolyte. By increasing the potential to more negative values (>-1.3 V), FeII dissolution may be induced in electrolyte solutions containing acetate and phosphate and inhibited by addition of sodium benzoate, which adsorbs on exposed Fe particles, effectively passivating them. Finally, we observe that the FeII/III redox chemistry or subsequent passivation does not affect the onset of oxygen reduction at nitrogen-doped CNTs, suggesting that the surface-bound FeII species is not the primary catalytically active site for oxygen reduction in these materials.