A study of particulate emissions during 23 major industrial fires: Implications for human health

Evaluating public exposure to airborne particulates from major incident fires: A back trajectory plume modelling approach

Major incident fires at industrial facilities, particularly waste sites, pose a significant risk to public health because of the large amounts of hazardous airborne pollutants released into the ambient environment. Monitoring carried out during these fires is limited in spatial resolution, meaning that the full extent of population exposure is difficult to estimate. In this study, we overcome these limitations by using a novel back-trajectory plume modelling approach, applied to PM10 emission data from a significant tyre fire that occurred in the UK in 2010. This approach allows the calculation of an hourly emission rate that is then used in the forward modelling mode to predict hourly plume concentrations. An analysis of the modelled plume indicated that, as a reasonable worst case, up to 8000 residents in areas adjacent to the fire may have been exposed to PM10 concentrations that are deemed hazardous. Moreover, a vulnerability analysis showed that the exposed population had disproportionately poorer health than the national average, thus raising concerns about environmental justice. This work highlights the need to improve regulatory controls for waste sites located near urban areas and for further research on population exposure and the health impacts of major incident fires.

The Emission Characteristics and Health Risks of Firefighter-Accessed Fire: A Review

The exacerbation of wildfires caused by global warming poses a significant threat to human health and environmental integrity. This review examines the particulate matter (PM) and gaseous pollutants resulting from fire incidents and their impacts on individual health, with a specific focus on the occupational hazards faced by firefighters. Of particular concern is the release of carbon-containing gases and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) from forest fires and urban conflagrations, which exceed the recommended limits and pose severe health risks. Firefighters exposed to these pollutants demonstrate an elevated risk of developing pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases and cancer compared to the general population, indicating an urgent need for enhanced protective measures and health management strategies for firefighters. Through a meticulous analysis of the current research findings, this review delineates future research directions, focusing on the composition and properties of these pollutants, the impacts of fire-emitted pollutants on human health, and the development of novel protective technologies.

Estimating the Acute Health Effects of Smoke Exposure from an Urban Factory Fire Accident: A Case Study of a Tire Factory Fire in Korea

BACKGROUND

A major industrial fire accident occurred in a tire manufacturing factory in Daejeon, Korea, on 12 March 2023 and lasted for 3 d, generating air pollutant emissions. Although evidence regarding the health effects of urban fires is limited, residents near tire factory may have experienced health hazards due to smoke exposure from fire plumes.

OBJECTIVES

Capitalizing on the timing of this fire incident as a natural experiment, we estimated the attributable excess air pollution exposure and associated disease development among residents living near the tire factory.

METHODS

We used the generalized synthetic control method to estimate air pollution exposure and health burden attributable to the accident among residents living in smoke-exposed districts. Based on satellite images and air pollution monitoring results, three administrative districts (within 1.2 km from the factory) were defined as smoke-exposed, and the other 79 districts of Daejeon were defined as controls. Among the 11 monitoring stations in Daejeon, the station located 500 m from the factory was used to estimate excess air pollution exposure (PM 10 , PM 2.5 , NO 2 , O 3 , SO 2 , and CO) for residents in the exposed districts. The number of daily district-level disease-specific incidence cases were acquired from the National Health Insurance Database and used to estimate excess health burden resulting from the fire.

RESULTS

During the first week following the factory fire, residents of exposed districts had an estimated excess exposure to 125.2 [95% confidence interval (CI): 44.9, 156.7] μ g / m 3 of PM 10 , 50.4 (95% CI: 12.7, 99.8) ppb of NO 2 , and 32.0 (95% CI: 21.0, 35.9) ppb of SO 2 . We also found an average increase in the incidence cases of other diseases of upper respiratory tract [20.6 persons (95% CI: 6.2, 37.4)], lung disease due to external agents [2.5 persons (95% CI: 2.1, 3.3)], urticaria and erythema [5.9 persons (95% CI: - 0.6 , 11.2)], and episodic and paroxysmal disorders [8.5 persons (95% CI: 3.7, 13.4)] in exposed districts.

DISCUSSION

Excessive air pollution exposure and disease incidence were identified among residents living close to the tire factory. Preventive measures, such as a warning system, to avoid health impacts to people breathing fire-related pollution may be beneficial for communities impacted by such events. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP14115.

Searching for a sustainable solution to increasing chemical pollution

The growing world population and the development of civilization put pressure on the environment. Irreversible climate changes, biodiversity loss, ocean acidification, land and water degradation, and food scarcity took place. Climate changes affect human health through extreme atmospheric phenomena or indirect effects of ecosystem disruption. The intensification of natural disasters increases the risk of technical failures, and the growing production and release of larger quantities and more new chemical compounds, with different hazard potentials, exceeds the environment's adaptability and societies' ability to monitor changes and conduct safety assessments. The article reviews the knowledge and approach to the possibility of reducing the risks and effects of events resulting from chemical pollution. As stated, prevention of further environmental degradation and increased preparedness for natural disasters caused by climate change is critical to public safety and requires contingency plans to continuously adapt to the changing frequency, intensity, and scale of natural disasters.

Characterizing the effects of structural fires on fine particulate matter with a dense sensing network

Short-term increases in air pollution levels are linked to large adverse effects on health and productivity. However, existing regulatory monitoring systems lack the spatial or temporal resolution needed to capture localized events. This study uses a dense network of over 100 sensors, deployed across the city of Chicago, Illinois, to capture the spread of smoke from short-term structural fire events. Examining all large structural fires that occurred in the city over a year (N = 21), we characterize differences in PM[Formula: see text] concentrations downwind versus upwind of the fires. On average, we observed increases of up to 10.7 [Formula: see text]g/m[Formula: see text] (95% CI 5.7-15.7) for sensors within 2 km and up to 7.7 [Formula: see text]g/m[Formula: see text] (95% CI 3.4-12.0) for sensors 2-5 km downwind of fires. Statistically significant elevated concentrations were evident as far as 5 km downwind of the location of the fire and persisted over approximately 2 h on average. This work shows how low-cost sensors can provide insight on local and short-term pollution events, enabling regulators to provide timely warnings to vulnerable populations.

The use of gas chromatography - high resolution mass spectrometry for suspect screening and non-targeted analysis of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances

This study is a workflow development for the analysis, identification, and categorization of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) using gas chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS) with non-targeted analysis (NTA) and suspect screening techniques. The behavior of various PFAS in a GC-HRMS was studied with regards to retention indices, ionization susceptibility, fragmentation patterns, etc. A custom PFAS database was constructed from 141 diverse PFAS. The database contains mass spectra from electron ionization (EI) mode, as well as MS and MS/MS spectra from positive and negative chemical ionization (PCI and NCI, respectively) modes. Common fragments of PFAS were identified across a diverse set of 141 PFAS analyzed. A workflow for suspect screening of PFAS and partially fluorinated products of incomplete combustion/destruction (PICs/PIDs) was developed which utilized both the custom PFAS database and external databases. PFAS and other fluorinated compounds were identified in both a challenge sample (designed to test the identification workflow) and incineration samples suspected to contain PFAS and fluorinated PICs/PIDs. The challenge sample resulted in a 100% true positive rate (TPR) for PFAS which were present in the custom PFAS database. Several fluorinated species were tentatively identified in the incineration samples using the developed workflow.

Chemical explosion, COVID-19, and environmental justice: Insights from low-cost air quality sensors

OBJECTIVES

To examine the impact of the Intercontinental Terminals Company (ITC) fire and COVID-19 on airborne particulate matter (PM) concentrations and the PM disproportionally affecting communities in Houston using low-cost sensors.

METHODS

We compared measurements from a network of low-cost sensors with a separate network of monitors from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the Houston metropolitan area from Mar 18, 2019, to Dec 31, 2020. Further, we examined the associations between neighborhood-level sociodemographic status and air pollution patterns by linking the low-cost sensor data to EPA environmental justice screening and mapping systems.

FINDINGS

We found increased PM levels during ITC fire and pre-COVID-19, and lower PM levels after the COVID-19 lockdown, comparable to observations from the regulatory monitors, with higher variations and a greater number of locations with high PM levels detected. In addition, the environmental justice analysis showed positive associations between higher PM levels and the percentage of minority, low-income population, and demographic index.

IMPLICATION

Our study indicates that low-cost sensors provide pollutant measures with higher spatial variations and a better ability to identify hot spots and high peak concentrations. These advantages provide critical information for disaster response and environmental justice studies.

SYNOPSIS

We used measurements from a low-cost sensor network for air pollution monitoring and environmental justice analysis to examine the impact of anthropogenic and natural disasters.

Defining the effects of traffic-related air pollution on the human plasma proteome using an aptamer proteomic array: A dose-dependent increase in atherosclerosis-related proteins

BACKGROUND

Traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) is a critical risk factor and major contributor to respiratory and cardiovascular disease (CVD). The effects of TRAP beyond the lungs can be related to changes in circulatory proteins. However, such TRAP-mediated changes have not been defined in an unbiased manner using a controlled human model.

OBJECTIVE

To detail global protein changes (the proteome) in plasma following exposure to inhaled diesel exhaust (DE), a paradigm of TRAP, using controlled human exposures.

METHODS

In one protocol, ex-smokers and never-smokers were exposed to filtered air (FA) and DE (300 μg PM_2.5/m³), on order-randomized days, for 2 h. In a second protocol, independent never-smoking participants were exposed to lower concentrations of DE (20, 50 or 150 μg PM_2.5/m³) and FA, for 4 h, on order-randomized days. Each exposure was separated by 4 weeks of washout. Plasma samples obtained 24 h post-exposure from ex-smokers (n = 6) were first probed using Slow off-rate modified aptamer proteomic array. Plasma from never-smokers (n = 11) was used for independent assessment of proteins selected from the proteomics study by immunoblotting.

RESULTS

Proteomics analyses revealed that DE significantly altered 342 proteins in plasma of ex-smokers (n = 6). The top 20 proteins therein were primarily associated with inflammation and CVD. Plasma from never-smokers (n = 11) was used for independent assessment of 6 proteins, amongst the top 10 proteins increased by DE in the proteomics study, for immunoblotting. The abundance of all six proteins (fractalkine, apolipoproteins (APOB and APOM), IL18R1, MIP-3 and MMP-12) was significantly increased by DE in plasma of these never-smokers. DE-mediated increase was shown to be concentration-dependent for fractalkine, APOB and MMP-12, all biomarkers of atherosclerosis, which correlated with plasma levels of IL-6, a subclinical marker of CVD, in independent participants.

CONCLUSION

This investigation details changes in the human plasma proteome due to TRAP. We identify specific atherosclerosis-related proteins that increase concentration-dependently across a range of TRAP levels applicable worldwide.

Characterising the ground level concentrations of harmful organic and inorganic substances released during major industrial fires, and implications for human health

We report on the concentration ranges and combustion source-related emission profiles of organic and inorganic species released during 34 major industrial fires in the UK. These episodic events tend to be acute in nature and demand a rapid public health risk assessment to indicate the likely impact on exposed populations. The objective of this paper is to improve our understanding of the nature, composition and potential health impacts of emissions from major incident fires and so support the risk assessment process. Real world monitoring data was obtained from portable Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) monitoring (Gasmet DX-4030/40) carried out as part of the UK's Air Quality in Major Incidents service. The measured substances include carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen cyanide, formaldehyde, 1,3-butadiene, benzene, toluene, xylenes, ethyl benzene, acrolein, phosgene, arsine, phosphine and methyl isocyanate. We evaluate the reported concentrations against Acute Exposure Guideline Values (AEGLs) and Emergency Response Planning Guidelines (ERPGs), as well as against UK, EU and WHO short-term ambient guideline values. Most exceedances of AEGL or ERPG guideline values were at levels likely only to cause discomfort to exposed populations (hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride and formaldehyde), though for several substances the exceedances could have potentially given rise to more serious health effects (acrolein, phosphine, phosgene and methyl isocyanate). In the latter cases, the observed high concentrations are likely to be due to cross-interference from other substances that absorb in the mid-range of the infrared spectrum, particularly when the ground level plume is very concentrated.

A novel approach to the development of 1-hour threshold concentrations for exposure to particulate matter during episodic air pollution events

Episodic air pollution events that occur because of wildfires, dust storms and industrial incidents can expose populations to particulate matter (PM) concentrations in the thousands of µg m^-3. Such events have increased in frequency and duration over recent years, with this trend predicted to continue in the short to medium term because of climate warming. The human health cost of episodic PM events can be significant, and inflammatory responses are measurable even after only a few hours of exposure. Consequently, advice for the protection of public health should be available as quickly as possible, yet the shortest averaging period for which PM exposure guideline values (GVs) are available is 24-h. To address this problem, we have developed a novel approach, based on Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) statistical analysis, that derives 1-h threshold concentrations that have a probabilistic relationship with 24-h GVs. The ROC analysis was carried out on PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 monitoring data from across the US for the period 2014-2019. Validation of the model against US Air Quality Index (AQI) 24-h breakpoint concentrations for PM showed that the maximum-observed 1-h PM concentration in any rolling 24-h averaging period is an excellent predictor of exceedances of 24-h GVs.

The Impact of an Urban Scrapyard Fire on Respiratory-Related Pediatric Emergency Department Visits

OBJECTIVE

In Philadelphia, a scrapyard fire generated PM2.5 concentrations >1000 μg/m. We assessed whether this was associated with pediatric emergency department visits for respiratory diagnoses.

DESIGN/METHODS

Retrospective observational study using electronic health record data from a local, academic pediatric hospital.

RESULTS

Compared to the two-week period before the fire, patients living directly north of the fire (downwind) had a significant difference in all asthma diagnoses (OR = 3.02, P = 0.03); asthma and upper respiratory infection (OR = 17.3, P = 0.01); overall admissions (OR = 3.04, P = 01); asthma admissions (OR = 4.45, P = .01); and asthma and upper respiratory infection admissions (OR = 15.0, P = 0.01). We did not observe any significant differences among visits or admissions from patients residing in other adjacent zip codes.

CONCLUSION

A localized, transient increase in PM2.5 was associated with increased pediatric emergency department visits for asthma among patients living downwind of the fire.

Experimental Evaluation of 79 and 300 GHz Radar Performance in Fire Environments

This paper presents an experimental study of the propagation of mm-wave/low-THz signals in the frequency ranges of 79 and 300 GHz through fire. Radar performance was investigated in various real scenarios, including fire with strong flame, dense smoke and water vapour. A stereo video camera and a LIDAR were used as a comparison with other common types of sensors. The ability of radars to enable the visibility of objects in fire environments was proven. In all scenarios, the radar signal attenuation was measured, and in the case of steam was compared with theoretical calculations. The analysis of the experimental results allows us to conclude that there are good prospects for millimetre wave and Low Terahertz radar in the field of firefighting imaging equipment.

Concentrations of Particulate Matter and PM-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Released during Combustion of Various Types of Materials and Possible Toxicological Potential of the Emissions: The Results of Preliminary Studies

The aim of this study was to compare the concentrations of particulate matter (PM) and PM-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during the combustion of various types of materials (i.e., oak, beech, and pine wood, polypropylene, polyurethane, paper, cotton, and oriented strand board (OSB)), and to compare the carcinogenic, mutagenic, and toxic potential of the emissions during the burning of these materials. Personal portable sampling devices were used to collect samples and to determine concentrations of PM4, total suspended particles (TSPs), PM-bound PAHs. The samples were collected during controlled fires under laboratory conditions. The highest PM concentration was recorded during the burning of polyurethane (PM4-1818 mg/m3, TSP-2800 mg/m3), while the highest concentration of PAH mixture was recorded when burning OSB (628.5 µg/m3 PM4-bound; 791.2 µg/m3 TSP-bound PAHs). Thus, the highest carcinogenic (85.5 µg/m3), mutagenic (68.2 µg/m3) and toxic equivalents (26.4 ng/m3) of the PAH mixture were noted during OSB combustion. Carcinogenic potential (CP) of PAH group was determined mainly by phenanthrene (CP on average 21.6%) and pyrene concentrations (13.3%). The results of the study express possible adverse effects from PM-bound PAHs released during combustion for firefighters and other people staying near a fire site.

Roof cavity dust as an exposure proxy for extreme air pollution events

Understanding exposure to air pollution during extreme events such as fire emergencies is critical for assessing their potential health impacts. However, air pollution emergencies often affect places without a network of air quality monitoring and characterising exposure retrospectively is methodologically challenging due to the complex behaviour of smoke and other air pollutants. Here we test the potential of roof cavity (attic) dust to act as a robust household-level exposure proxy, using a major air pollution event associated with a coal mine fire in the Latrobe Valley, Australia, as an illustrative study. To assess the relationship between roof cavity dust composition and mine fire exposure, we analysed the elemental and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon composition of roof cavity dust (<150μm) from 39 homes along a gradient of exposure to the mine fire plume. These homes were grouped into 12 zones along this exposure gradient: eight zones across Morwell, where mine fire impacts were greatest, and four in other Latrobe Valley towns at increasing distance from the fire. We identified two elements-barium and magnesium-as 'chemical markers' that show a clear and theoretically grounded relationship with the brown coal mine fire plume exposure. This relationship is robust to the influence of plausible confounders and contrasts with other, non-mine fire related elements, which showed distinct and varied distributional patterns. We conclude that targeted components of roof cavity dust can be a useful empirical marker of household exposure to severe air pollution events and their use could support epidemiological studies by providing spatially-resolved exposure estimates post-event.