European-scale modelling of groundwater denitrification and associated N₂O production

Assessing nitrate groundwater hotspots in Europe reveals an inadequate designation of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones

Monitoring networks show that the European Union Nitrates Directive (ND) has had mixed success in reducing nitrate concentrations in groundwater. By combining machine learning and monitored nitrate concentrations (1992-2019), we estimate the total area of nitrate hotspots in Europe to be 401,000 km2, with 47% occurring outside of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZs). We also found contrasting increasing or decreasing trends, varying per country and time periods. We estimate that only 5% of the 122,000 km2 of hotspots in 2019 will meet nitrate quality standards by 2040 and that these may be offset by the appearance of new hotspots. Our results reveal that the effectiveness of the ND is limited by both time-lags between the implementation of good practices and pollution reduction and an inadequate designation of NVZs. Substantial improvements in the designation and regulation of NVZs are necessary, as well as in the quality of monitoring stations in terms of spatial density and information available concerning sampling depth, if the objectives of EU legislation to protect groundwater are to be achieved.

Dissolved greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural groundwater irrigation in the Guanzhong Basin of China

While evidence indicates that groundwater is a potential source for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, information for such emissions in groundwater used for irrigation is lacking. Based on 23 wells in the mid-western Guanzhong Basin of China, we investigated the dissolved CO₂, N₂O, and CH₄ distributions in groundwater, their relationships with water indicators, and emission fluxes during flood irrigation. We found zero methane, but CO₂ and N₂O were 30 and 25 times, respectively, supersaturated compared to atmospheric concentrations. Dissolved N₂O in groundwater was positively correlated with NO₃^--N (P = 0.009), while CO₂ depended mainly on low pH and high dissolved inorganic carbon. The CO₂ and N₂O emission fluxes detected in wellheads, especially in shallow wells, implied potential emissions. Flood irrigation experiments showed that 24.55% of dissolved CO₂ and 36.81% of dissolved N₂O in groundwater was degassed immediately (within 12 min of irrigation) to the atmosphere. Our study demonstrates that direct GHG emissions from groundwater used for agricultural irrigation in the Guanzhong Basin are potentially equivalent to about 2-4% of the GHG emissions from 3 years of fertilizer use on these farmlands, so further research should focus on optimizing irrigation strategies to mitigate GHG emissions.

Assessment of intrinsic aquifer vulnerability at continental scale through a critical application of the drastic framework: The case of South America

An assessment of the intrinsic aquifer vulnerability of South America is presented. The outcomes represent the potential sensitivity of natural aquifers to leaching of dissolved compounds from the land surface. The study, developed at continental scale but retaining regionally a high resolution, is based on a critical application of the DRASTIC method. The biggest challenge in performing such a study in South America was the scattered and irregular nature of environmental datasets. Accordingly, the most updated information on soil, land use, geology, hydrogeology, and climate at continental, national, and regional scale were selected from international and local databases. To avoid spatial discrepancy and inconsistency, data were integrated, harmonized, and accurately cross-checked, using local professional knowledge where information was missing. The method was applied in a GIS environment to allow spatial analysis of raw data along with the overlaying and rating of maps. The application of the DRASTIC method allows to classify South America into five vulnerability classes, from very low to very high, and shows an overall medium to low vulnerability at continental scale. The Amazon region, coastal aquifers, colluvial Andean valleys, and alluvial aquifers of main rivers were the areas classified as highly vulnerable. Moreover, countries with the largest areas with high aquifer vulnerability were those characterized by extended regions of rainforest. In addition, a single parameter sensitivity analysis showed depth to water table to be the most significant factor, while a cross-validation using existing vulnerability assessments and observed concentrations of compounds in groundwater confirmed the reliability of the proposed assessment, even at regional scale. Overall, although additional field surveys and detailed works at local level are needed to develop effective water management plans, the present DRASTIC map represents an essential common ground towards a more sustainable land-use and water management in the whole territory of South America.

Denitrification in Intrinsic and Specific Groundwater Vulnerability Assessment: A Review

Several groundwater vulnerability methodologies have been implemented throughout the years to face the increasing worldwide groundwater pollution, ranging from simple rating methodologies to complex numerical, statistical, and hybrid methods. Most of these methods have been used to evaluate groundwater vulnerability to nitrate, which is considered the major groundwater contaminant worldwide. Together with dilution, the degradation of nitrate via denitrification has been acknowledged as a process that can reduce reactive nitrogen mass loading rates in both deep and shallow aquifers. Thus, denitrification should be included in groundwater vulnerability studies and integrated into the various methodologies. This work reviewed the way in which denitrification has been considered within the vulnerability assessment methods and how it could increase the reliability of the overall results. Rating and statistical methods often disregard or indirectly incorporate denitrification, while numerical models make use of kinetic reactions that are able to quantify the spatial and temporal variations of denitrification rates. Nevertheless, the rating methods are still the most utilized, due to their linear structures, especially in watershed studies. More efforts should be paid in future studies to implement, calibrate, and validate user-friendly vulnerability assessment methods that are able to deal with denitrification capacity and rates at large spatial and temporal scales.

Spatially explicit boundaries for agricultural nitrogen inputs in the European Union to meet air and water quality targets

Agricultural production in the EU has increased strongly since the 1940s, partly driven by increased nitrogen (N) fertiliser and manure inputs. Increased N inputs and associated losses, however, adversely affect air and water quality, with widespread impacts on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and human health. Managing these impacts requires knowledge on 'safe boundaries' for N inputs, i.e., N flows that do not exceed environmental thresholds. We used a spatially explicit N balance model for the EU to derive boundaries for N losses and associated N inputs for three environmental thresholds: (i) N deposition onto natural areas to protect terrestrial biodiversity (critical N loads), (ii) N concentration in runoff to surface water (2.5 mg N l^-1) to protect aquatic ecosystems and (iii) nitrate (NO₃^-) concentration in leachate to groundwater (50 mg NO l^-1) to meet the EU drinking water standard. Critical N losses and inputs were calculated for ~40,000 unique soil-slope-climate combinations and then aggregated at country- and EU-level. To respect thresholds for N deposition, N inputs in the EU need to be reduced by 31% on average, ranging from 0% in several countries to 59% in Ireland and Denmark. The strongest reductions are required in intensive livestock regions, such as Benelux, Brittany and the Po valley. To respect thresholds for N concentration in runoff to surface water, N inputs need to be reduced by 43% on average, ranging from 2% in Estonia to 74% in the Netherlands. Average critical N inputs in view of the threshold for NO₃^- concentration in leachate to groundwater are close to actual (year 2010) inputs, even though leaching thresholds are exceeded in 18% of agricultural land. Critical N inputs and their exceedances presented in this paper can inform more targeted mitigation policies than flat-rate targets for N loss reductions currently mentioned in EU policies.

Development of a groundwater contamination index based on the agricultural hazard and aquifer vulnerability: Application to Portugal

Reducing nitrate leaching may not result in a significant improvement of groundwater quality. The amount of nitrate reaching groundwater depends not only on the hazard related to agricultural activities but also on-site specific groundwater vulnerability. Using national databases and other compiled datasets, the agricultural hazard was calculated as the ratio of (i) the nitrate leached estimated from the N surplus, and (ii) the water surplus, a proxy of the percolating water below the root zone. By combining the hazard with a multi-parameter groundwater vulnerability, a spatially explicit groundwater contamination risk, developed for mainland Portugal, was computed for 1999 and 2009. Results show an increase from 8,800 to 82,679 ha of the territory rated with a very high contamination risk. The priority areas were successfully screened by the Index, coinciding with the current Vulnerable Zones, although additional hotspots were detected in southern Portugal. Percolation, including both irrigation activity and precipitation, was found to be a key driver for the groundwater contamination risk due to its opposite effects in the hazard and in the vulnerability. Reducing nitrogen leaching may be insufficient to reduce the risk of nitrate contamination if there is a relatively larger reduction in precipitation. This index is particularly useful when applied to contrasting situations of vulnerability and hazard, which require distinct mitigation measures to mitigate groundwater contamination.

Nitrogen Fertilization. A Review of the Risks Associated with the Inefficiency of Its Use and Policy Responses

Nitrogen (N) is a key input to food production. Nearly half of N fertilizer input is not used by crops and is lost into the environment via emission of gases or by polluting water bodies. It is essential to achieve production levels, which enable global food security, without compromising environmental security. The N pollution level expected by 2050 is projected to be 150% higher than in 2010, with the agricultural sector accounting for 60% of this increase. In this paper, we review the status of the pollution from N fertilizers worldwide and make recommendations to address the situation. The analysis reviews the relationship between N fertilizer use, N use efficiency, no-point pollution, the role of farmer management practices, and policy approaches to address diffuse pollution caused by N fertilization. Several studies show a lack of information as one of the main hurdles to achieve changes in habits. The objective of this study is to highlight the gravity of the current global non-point pollution as well as the need for a communication effort to make farmers aware of the relationship between their activity and N pollution and, therefore, the importance of their fertilizer management practices.

Safeguarding Food Supply and Groundwater Safety for Maize Production in China

Quantifying sustainable nitrogen (N) management at the national scale is critical for developing targeted policies and strategies to simultaneously achieve food security and groundwater protection. In this study, we report county-scale optimization scenarios for Chinese maize production and evaluate their outcomes for safeguarding food supply and groundwater safety. First, we performed random forest regression modeling to simulate in situ NO₃^- leaching based on a meta-analysis that integrates climate, soil, water, and N balance parameters. The NO₃^- leaching was then mapped for 1406 counties based on data compiled from 2.89 million farmer surveys. Average NO₃^- leaching during the maize growth season was estimated to be 27.6 kg N ha^-1, and 56% of counties had groundwater whose nitrate concentrations exceeded drinking water safety levels during 2005-2014. The top 5% farmers in each county produced not only more grain but also greater NO₃^- leaching. Scenario analysis of potential management changes found that when these top producers combined optimal N management practices, national N use in Chinese maize system was reduced by 25%, from 9.1 to 6.9 Mt, while maize production increased by 6.1%. Modeled NO₃^- leaching was 0.58 Mt, which was 31% lower than groundwater safety levels and 53% lower than the current leaching amount. This study provides evidence that integrated crop and N management practices implemented at the county level safeguard both maize crop food security and enhance environment sustainability.

Nitrate source apportionment in groundwater using Bayesian isotope mixing model based on nitrogen isotope fractionation

Accurate identification of nitrate (NO₃^-) sources is critical to address the issue of groundwater pollution. The nitrogen (N) isotopic enrichment factor (ɛ_p/s) is an important parameter to explain the N cycle and determine the proportional contribution of NO₃^- sources. Considering the isotopic fractionation effects in N transformation processes, this study quantitatively analyzed the NO₃^- sources in groundwater using stable isotopes (δ¹⁵N-NO₃^- and δ¹⁸O-NO₃^-) and the Bayesian isotope mixing model (SIAR). For the first time, the ɛ_p/s values (0.0‰, -8.7‰, -8.7‰, and 14.7‰) of atmospheric deposition (AD), soil nitrogen (SN), chemical fertilizers (CF), and manure and sewage (M&S) were calculated to determine the NO₃^- source apportionment in groundwater. It was proved that the isotopic fractionation effect could produce a more accurate NO₃^- source apportionment. We also found that the NO₃^- source contributions were closely related to the cropping system. In the vegetable cultivation area, CF (54.32%) and SN (37.75%) were the dominant NO₃^- source, while in the grain cultivation area, NO₃^- pollution was largely influenced by SN (33.67%), CF (33.27%), and M&S (30.16%). According to this study, the isotope fractionation is strongly recommended for NO₃^- source apportionment in groundwater system.

A review of indirect N2O emission factors from agricultural nitrogen leaching and runoff to update of the default IPCC values

Indirect N₂O emissions from agricultural nitrogen (N) leaching and runoff in water bodies contribute significantly to the global atmospheric N₂O budget. However, considerable uncertainty regarding this source remains in the bottom-up N₂O inventory. Indirect N₂O emission factor associated with N leaching and runoff (EF₅; kg N₂ON per kg of NO₃^--N) incorporate three components for groundwater and surface drainage (EF_5g), rivers (EF_5r), and estuaries (EF_5e). The 2006 IPCC default EF₅ value was based on a small number of studies available at the time. Here we present the synthesis of 254 measurements of EF₅, dissolved N₂O, and nitrate from 106 studies. Our results do not support the further downward revision of EF_5g by the IPCC and suggest an upward revision of EF_5g of 0.0060. The emission factors for groundwater and springs (0.0079) was higher than that for surface drainage (0.0040). The emission factor for lakes, ponds, and reservoirs was 0.0012, whereas that for rivers was 0.0030, and a combined EF_5r was 0.0026. Estimated EF_5r and EF_5e (0.0026) values from the study were close to the current IPCC default values (0.0025 each). We estimated an updated default EF₅ value of 0.01 for the refinement of IPCC guidelines.

Isotopic composition of nitrogen species in groundwater under agricultural areas: A review

This work reviews applications of stable isotope analysis to the studies of transport and transformation of N species in groundwater under agricultural areas. It summarizes evidence regarding factors affecting the isotopic composition of NO₃^-, NH₄⁺ and N₂O in subsurface, and discusses the use of ¹¹B, ¹⁸O, ¹³C, ³⁴S, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr isotopes to support the analysis of δ¹⁵N values. The isotopic composition of NO₃^-, NH₄⁺ and N₂O varies depending on their sources and dynamics of N cycle processes. The reported δ¹⁵N-NO₃^- values for sources of NO₃^- are: soil organic N - +3‰-+8‰, mineral fertilizers - -8‰-+7‰; manure/household waste - +5‰ to +35‰. For NH₄⁺ sources, the isotopic signature ranges are: organic matter - +2.4-+4.1‰, rainwater - -13.4-+2.3‰, mineral fertilizers - -7.4-+5.1‰, household waste - +5-+9‰; animal manure - +8-+11‰. For N₂O, isotopic composition depends on isotopic signatures of substrate pools and reaction rates. δ¹⁵N values of NO₃^- are influenced by fractionation effects occurring during denitrification (ɛ=5-40‰), nitrification (ɛ=5-35‰) and DNRA (ɛ not reported). The isotopic signature of NH₄⁺ is also affected by nitrification and DNRA as well as mineralization (ɛ=1‰), sorption (ɛ=1-8‰), anammox (ɛ=4.3-7.4‰) and volatilization (ɛ=25‰). As for the N₂O, production of N₂O leads to its depletion in ¹⁵N, whereas consumption - to enrichment in ¹⁵N. The magnitude of fractionation effects occurring during the considered processes depends on temperature, pH, DO, C/NO₃^- ratio, size of the substrate pool, availability of electron donors, water content in subsoil, residence time, land use, hydrogeology. While previous studies have accumulated rich data on isotopic composition of NO₃^- in groundwater, evidence remains scarce in the cases of NH₄⁺ and N₂O. Further research is required to consider variability of δ¹⁵N-NH₄⁺ and δ¹⁵N-N₂O in groundwater across agricultural ecosystems.

Global patterns of nitrate storage in the vadose zone

Global-scale nitrogen budgets developed to quantify anthropogenic impacts on the nitrogen cycle do not explicitly consider nitrate stored in the vadose zone. Here we show that the vadose zone is an important store of nitrate that should be considered in future budgets for effective policymaking. Using estimates of groundwater depth and nitrate leaching for 1900–2000, we quantify the peak global storage of nitrate in the vadose zone as 605–1814 Teragrams (Tg). Estimates of nitrate storage are validated using basin-scale and national-scale estimates and observed groundwater nitrate data. Nitrate storage per unit area is greatest in North America, China and Europe where there are thick vadose zones and extensive historical agriculture. In these areas, long travel times in the vadose zone may delay the impact of changes in agricultural practices on groundwater quality. We argue that in these areas use of conventional nitrogen budget approaches is inappropriate.

Current global-scale nitrogen (N) budgets quantifying anthropogenic impacts on the N cycle do not explicitly consider nitrate storage in the vadose zone. Here, using estimates of depth to groundwater and nitrate leaching between 1900–2000, the authors show that the vadose zone is an important store of nitrate.

Dynamics and emissions of N2O in groundwater: A review

This work reviews the concentrations, the dynamics and the emissions of nitrous oxide (N₂O) in groundwater. N₂O is an important greenhouse gas (GHG) and the primary stratospheric ozone depleting substance. The major anthropogenic source that contributes to N₂O generation in aquifers is agriculture because the use of fertilizers has led to the widespread groundwater contamination by inorganic nitrogen (N) (mainly nitrate, NO₃^-). Once in the aquifer, this inorganic N is transported and affected by several geochemical processes that produce and consume N₂O. An inventory of dissolved N₂O concentrations is presented and the highest concentration is about 18.000 times higher than air-equilibrated water (up to 4004μg N L^-1). The accumulation of N₂O in groundwater is mainly due to denitrification and to lesser extent to nitrification. Their occurrence depend on the geochemical (e.g., NO₃^-, dissolved oxygen, ammonium and dissolved organic carbon) as well as hydrogeological parameters (e.g., groundwater table fluctuations and aquifer permeability). The coupled understanding of both parameters is necessary to gain insight on the dynamics and the emissions of N₂O in groundwater. Overall, groundwater indirect N₂O emissions seem to be a minor component of N₂O emissions to the atmosphere. Further research might be devoted to evaluate the groundwater contribution to the indirect emissions of N₂O because this will help to better constraint the N₂O global budget and, consequently, the N budget.

Quantifying nitrogen leaching response to fertilizer additions in China's cropland

Agricultural soils account for more than 50% of nitrogen leaching (LN) to groundwater in China. When excess levels of nitrogen accumulate in groundwater, it poses a risk of adverse health effects. Despite this recognition, estimation of LN from cropland soils in a broad spatial scale is still quite uncertain in China. The uncertainty of LN primarily stems from the shape of nitrogen leaching response to fertilizer additions (N rate) and the role of environmental conditions. On the basis of 453 site-years at 51 sites across China, we explored the nonlinearity and variability of the response of LN to N rate and developed an empirical statistical model to determine how environmental factors regulate the rate of N leaching (LR). The result shows that LN-N rate relationship is convex for most crop types, and varies by local hydro-climates and soil organic carbon. Variability of air temperature explains a half (∼ 52%) of the spatial variation of LR. The results of model calibration and validation indicate that incorporating this empirical knowledge into a predictive model could accurately capture the variation in leaching and produce a reasonable upscaling from site to country. The fertilizer-induced LN in 2008 for China's cropland were 0.88 ± 0.23 TgN (1σ), significantly lower than the linear or uniform model, as assumed by Food and Agriculture Organization and MITERRA-EUROPE models. These results also imply that future policy to reduce N leaching from cropland needs to consider environmental variability rather than solely attempt to reduce N rate.

Drinking water decontamination by biological denitrification using fresh bamboo as inoculum source

Groundwater contamination is becoming a serious problem in many Brazilian regions. European countries started to deal with this issue in the 1980s, mainly caused by the extensive usage of nitrogenous fertilizers and the absence of domestic wastewater treatment. Due to its high solubility, nitrate readily passes through the soil and reaches the aquifer. Thereafter, this ion moves, following groundwater flow, and can be found several kilometers from the area where the pollution occurred. Concern about nitrate contamination is due to the link found between this contaminant and various human health diseases, such as methemoglobin and cancer. Studies carried out in France enabled the design and implementation of several biological denitrification plants throughout the country, in order to remove nitrate from its contaminated groundwater. Heterotrophic denitrification facilities shown to be adequate to treat high water flows with satisfactory nitrate removal efficiency, especially when static media supports are employed. The objective of this research was to evaluate the existence of denitrifying microorganisms in bamboo (Bambusa tuldóides) and verify the feasibility of their use to inoculate a pilot-scale fixed-bed bioreactor. The support material selected to fill the bioreactor bed was commercial polypropylene Pall rings, since such support has a high porosity associated with a wide superficial area. The bioreactor was able to produce and retain a large amount of cells. Using ethanol as carbon source, nitrate (N-NO3(-)) removal efficiency of the bioreactor stood around 80 % for a maximum nitrogen loading rate of approximately 6.5 mg N-NO3 (-) L(-1) h(-1).