First study on the presence of plastic additives in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) from the Mediterranean Sea

A best practice framework for assessing plastic ingestion in marine turtles

The ingestion of plastic debris has been reported in all seven marine turtle species, affecting vital processes throughout their entire life cycle and key habitats. Consequently, this emerging threat has been recognized as a priority conservation concern. The potential health impacts range from cryptic sublethal effects to severe injury and death. A comprehensive understanding of these impacts and the processes involved, at both the individual and population levels, is crucial for evaluating the vulnerability of marine turtles to plastic pollution. Aiming to guide researchers and stakeholders from the initial stages of project development, this study discusses essential components for establishing and achieving research on plastic ingestion in marine turtles. Drawing on diverse efforts globally, this manuscript compiles the most common approaches and established methodologies, while evaluating resource availability and capabilities, to outline a globally applicable best practice framework for designing and implementing research and monitoring initiatives on plastic ingestion impacts to marine turtles.

Ecotoxicological responses of marine fish to the organophosphate flame-retardant tris (2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCPP) dietary exposure: Juvenile gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) as a case study

High Production Volume Chemicals (HPVCs) are contaminants that pose serious threats to aquatic environments and species that inhabit them, given their massive production and ubiquitous distribution across biological compartments. Among them, organophosphate esters (OPEs) are of particular concern, as they are widely used as plasticizers and flame-retardants, and linked to various forms of toxicity in marine organisms. In this study, we investigated the ecotoxicological response of juvenile gilthead seabream Sparus aurata to the OPE tris (2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCPP) following chronic dietary exposure to three different concentrations (low, D1: 0.2 mg kg-1; ecologically relevant, D2: 2 mg kg-1; and high, D3: 10 mg kg-1). Different biomarkers indicative of antioxidant defence mechanisms (catalase, CAT, glutathione S-transferase, GST, activities), metabolism (citrate synthase, CS, lactate dehydrogenase, LDH, activities) and endocrine disruption (vitellogenin content, VTG), as well as cell (lipid peroxidation levels, LPO) and protein damage (ubiquitin content, UBI) were analyzed in liver and muscle to assess TCPP toxicity. High concentrations of TCPP affected S. aurata growth, but not overall fitness condition. Furthermore, metabolic disruption and severe oxidative damages were observed, regardless of exposure dose. VTG content significantly decreased after exposure to all TCPP dosages, indicating a possible masculinization effect. These findings provide new insights to the scientific knowledge on TCPP ecotoxicological attributes and impacts on marine ichthyofauna. In addition, our results confirm the relevance of conducting integrated multi-biomarker approaches to disclose the ecotoxicological effects of poorly studied chemical contaminants and, ultimately, implement wastewater treatment strategies and legislation to protect marine ecosystems from pollution.

From the depths to the apex: Tracing the organophosphate ester journey through marine food webs

This study explores the behavior of organophosphate esters (OPEs) in different species within marine ecosystems and their potential for bioaccumulation and biomagnification. The concentrations of OPEs were analyzed in marine species (krill (Meganyctiphanes norvegica), jellyfish (Pelagia noctiluca), European sardine (Sardina pilchardus), European anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus), European hake (Merluccius merluccius), loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta), European squid (Loligo vulgaris), fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) and striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba)) from different trophic levels, to understand their distribution and contamination profiles. The study provides insights into the metabolism of OPEs and their biomagnification on species occupying higher trophic levels. The results show that the differences in OPE concentrations among species are influenced by contamination levels at sampling points, as well as species and trophic level characteristics. The study reveals that the sum of OPEs do not exhibit significant biomagnification within the marine food web, with higher trophic level species showing efficient metabolism of these contaminants. However, biomagnification analysis of individual compounds demonstrates that some OPEs, such as tris(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (TEP), tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP), and tris(2-isopropylphenyl) phosphate (T2IPPP) consistently exhibit biomagnification within marine trophic webs, while other show different behaviors depending on the trophic web. The loggerhead turtle shows higher biomagnification for specific OPEs, indicating the influence of diet and direct plastic waste consumption. Furthermore, OPEs prone to metabolism, such as tri-n-butyl phosphate (TNBP) and TBOEP, are present in multiple species across different trophic levels, suggesting a tendency for bioaccumulation. The study highlights the complexity of OPE behavior and the need to evaluate the biomagnification potential of each compound individually. It also emphasizes the toxic effects associated with OPE exposure and the potential risks to organisms within marine ecosystems.

Plasticizers levels in four fish species from the Ligurian Sea and Central Adriatic Sea (Mediterranean Sea) and potential risk for human consumption

Plastic materials contain additives such as plasticizers and flame retardants, which are not covalently bound to plastic polymers and can therefore be unintentionally released into the marine environment. This study investigated three families of compounds, phthalates (PAEs), organophosphate esters (OPEs), and non-phthalate plasticizers (NPPs) currently used as plastic additives, in 48 muscle samples of bogue (Boops boops), European hake (Merluccius merluccius), red mullet (Mullus barbatus), and European pilchard (Sardina pilchardus) sampled in the Central Adriatic and the Ligurian Seas. The additional goal of this study is to assess the potential risk to human health from fish consumption with the objective of determining whether the detected levels might potentially pose a concern. PAEs represent the majority of the plastic additives detected in the selected species, with ubiquitous distribution across the study areas, whereas for OPEs and NPPs, there is a more pronounced difference between the two study areas, suggesting that these compounds may represent different exposure levels in the two seas. Among PAEs, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), and diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP) were the most abundant compounds, reaching levels up to 455 ng/g ww. OPEs were detected at higher concentrations in samples from the Ligurian Sea, and triethyl phosphate (TEP) was the most abundant compound. Among the NPPs, acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC) was most frequently detected. From the results obtained, fish consumption may not pose a risk to human health (Hazard Quotient<1) but needs to be considered in future studies. Given the limited number of studies on PAEs, OPEs and NPPs in the Mediterranean Sea, further research is necessary to understand their potential bioaccumulation in marine organisms.

Exposure to high concentrations of triphenyl phosphate altered functional performance, liver metabolism and intestinal bacterial composition of aquatic turtles

Organophosphorus flame retardants, such as triphenyl phosphate (TPhP), exist ubiquitously in various environments owing to their widespread usage. Potential toxic effects of residual flame retardants on cultured non-fish species are not concerned commonly. TPhP-induced physiological and biochemical effects in an aquatic turtle were evaluated here by systematically investigating the changes in growth and locomotor performance, hepatic antioxidant ability and metabolite, and intestinal microbiota composition of turtle hatchlings after exposure to different TPhP concentrations. Reduced locomotor ability and antioxidant activity were only observed in the highest concentration group. Several metabolic perturbations that involved in amino acid, energy and nucleotide metabolism, in exposed turtles were revealed by metabolite profiles. No significant among-group difference in intestinal bacterial diversity was observed, but the composition was changed markedly in exposed turtles. Increased relative abundances of some bacterial genera (e.g., Staphylococcus, Vogesella and Lawsonella) probably indicated adverse outcomes of TPhP exposure. Despite having only limited impacts of exposure at environmentally relevant levels, our results revealed potential ecotoxicological risks of residual TPhP for aquatic turtles considering TPhP-induced metabolic perturbations and intestinal bacterial changes.

First determination of elevated levels of plastic additives in finless porpoises from the South China Sea

Plastic additives, such as organophosphate esters (OPEs) and phthalate esters (PAEs), are raising public concerns due to their widespread presence and potential health risks. Nonetheless, the occurrences and potential health risks of these additives in marine mammals remain limited. Here, we first investigated the accumulation patterns and potential risks of OPEs and metabolites of PAEs (mPAEs) in Indo-Pacific finless porpoises inhabiting the northern South China Sea (NSCS) during 2007-2020. The average hepatic concentrations of ∑15OPEs and ∑16mPAEs in the NSCS finless porpoises were 53.9 ± 40.7 and 98.6 ± 54.8 ng/g ww, respectively. The accumulation of mPAEs and OPEs in the finless porpoises is associated with the chemical structures of the compounds. ∑5halogenated-OPEs were the most dominant category (62.6%) of ∑15OPEs, followed by ∑6aryl-OPEs (25.9%) and ∑6nonhalogenated alkyl-OPEs (11.5%). The accumulation of mPAEs displayed a declining trend with increasing alkyl side chain length (C0-C10). Although the hepatic burden of mPAEs in finless porpoises was sex-independent, some OPEs, including TDCIPP, TBOEP, TCIPP, TCrP, TPHP, and TDBPP, exhibited significantly higher concentrations in adult males than in adult females. TDBPP, as a new-generation OPE, exhibited a gradual increase during the study period, suggesting that TDBPP should be prioritized for monitoring in the coastal regions of South China. The estimated hazard quotient indicated that almost all mPAEs and OPEs pose no hazard to finless porpoises, with only DEHP presenting potential health risks to both adult and juvenile finless porpoises.

Face mask as an indicator and shield of human exposure to traditional and novel organophosphate esters

Herein, the trapping effectiveness of N95, filter KN95, medical surgical masks (MSMs), and disposable medical masks (DMMs) against 19 airborne traditional and novel organophosphate esters (OPEs) was evaluated. Laboratory simulations (n = 24 for each type of mask) showed that time-dependent accumulation of ∑19OPEs on the four types of masks ranged between 30.1 and 86.6 ng in 24 h, with the highest and lowest median amounts trapped by the N95 masks (53.3 ng) and DMMs (43.2 ng), respectively. The trapping efficiency of the four types of masks for ∑19OPEs decreased over time from 84 % to 39 % in 24 h, with N95 masks showing the highest median efficiency (70 %). Further, field investigations were conducted in five types of microenvironments (train, hospital, bus, supermarket, and canteen), and an analysis of 200 samples showed that ∑19OPEs were accumulated in the masks with a variable amount from 3.7 to 117 ng/mask. Consistent with the laboratory simulations, the N95 masks (29.0 ng/mask) exhibited the highest hourly median amount of trapped OPEs, followed by the KN95 masks (24.5 ng/mask), MSMSs (17.4 ng/mask), and DMMs (15.8 ng/mask). Triethyl phosphate (TEP), tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP), tri-n-butyl phosphate (TNBP), and cresyl diphenyl phosphate (CDP) as well as 4-isopropylphenyl diphenyl phosphate (4IPPDPP) and 2,4-diisopropylphenyl diphenyl phosphate (24DIPPDPP) were the most commonly detected traditional and novel OPEs. Based on the amount of OPEs trapped on the masks, we estimated the concentration of ∑19OPEs in the train microenvironment to be the highest (222 ng/m3), which is approximately 2-5 times higher than that in the other microenvironments. The results of this study prove that masks can effectively protect humans from exposure to OPEs and act as low-cost indicators of indoor contamination.

Assessment of Daily Exposure to Organophosphate Esters through PM2.5 Inhalation, Dust Ingestion, and Dermal Contact

Inhalation of airborne fine particulate matter (PM2.5), dust ingestion, and dermal contact with dust are important pathways for human exposure to different contaminants, such as organophosphate esters (OPE), compounds that are widely used as flame retardants and plasticizers. There are limited studies assessing the extent of the contamination of OPE in indoor airborne PM2.5. This study offers a novel approach by examining various indoor environments, such as homes, workplaces, and means of transport, where people typically spend their daily lives. The goal is to provide a comprehensive assessment of daily exposure to these pollutants. Both PM2.5 and dust samples were collected in order to determine the concentration levels of 17 different OPEs. Fifteen OPEs in PM2.5 and 16 in dust samples were detected. Concentration levels in indoor air ranged from 4.37 to 185 ng/m3 (median 24.4 ng/m3) and from 3.02 to 36.9 μg/g for the dust samples (median 10.2 μg/g). Estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of OPEs were calculated for adults, yielding median values of 3.97 ng/(kg bw × day) for EDIInhalation, 5.89 ng/(kg bw × day) for EDIDermal, and 1.75 ng/(kg bw × day) for EDIIngestion. Such levels lie below human health threshold risk limits, although in some cases they could be only 2 times below the threshold for carcinogenic risk, with a main contribution from tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP). Given this threshold proximity, additional exposure to these chemicals from other pathways, such as food ingestion, gas phase exposure, and/or inhalation of coarser particles (PM10-2.5), could therefore lead to health limit exceedances.

Threatened North African seagrass meadows have supported green turtle populations for millennia

"Protect and restore ecosystems and biodiversity" is the second official aim of the current UN Ocean Decade (2021 to 2030) calling for the identification and protection of critical marine habitats. However, data to inform policy are often lacking altogether or confined to recent times, preventing the establishment of long-term baselines. The unique insights gained from combining bioarchaeology (palaeoproteomics, stable isotope analysis) with contemporary data (from satellite tracking) identified habitats which sea turtles have been using in the Eastern Mediterranean over five millennia. Specifically, our analysis of archaeological green turtle (Chelonia mydas) bones revealed that they likely foraged on the same North African seagrass meadows as their modern-day counterparts. Here, millennia-long foraging habitat fidelity has been directly demonstrated, highlighting the significance (and long-term dividends) of protecting these critical coastal habitats that are especially vulnerable to global warming. We highlight the potential for historical ecology to inform policy in safeguarding critical marine habitats.

Insight into chemical features of migrated additives from plastics and associated risks to estuarine ecosystem

Distinct hydrodynamic conditions created a hotspot of plastic and associated additive pollution within estuaries, which is of considerable scientific interest. However, the effects of specific estuarine weathering (severe mechanical wear, constant turbulence, and strong ultraviolet radiation) on migration of additives remain unclear. Therefore, we investigated the release of migrated plastic additives (MPAs) from three representative plastics, namely floating foam, fishing nets, and packaging bags, under simulated estuarine conditions. Sixty-seven MPAs leached out under the wave scenario, greater than those under the ultraviolet radiation (62) and shoal (40) scenarios. We detected forty MPAs in the plastic bag leachates, whereas fewer MPAs were released from the foam and nets. Several MPAs were peculiar to specific plastics, e.g., antistatic and curing agents in the bag and foam leachates, respectively. Particularly, a suite of nonionic surfactants, octylphenol polyethoxylates (OPEO_n), exhibited outstanding responses in the packaging bag leachates and had elevated toxic potential. OPEO_n significantly inhibited the hatching of zebrafish and caused cardiovascular system disorder and morphological distortions even at environmentally relevant concentrations as in estuaries. Collectively, the leaching of MPAs was significantly enhanced by wave actions, and the plastic leachates, particularly those of plastic bags, can cause detrimental risks to the estuarine ecosystem.

Insights into the geographical distribution, bioaccumulation characteristics, and ecological risks of organophosphate esters

Organophosphate esters (OPEs), as flame retardants and plasticizers, have been numerously explored regarding the occurrence and ecotoxicology. Given their toxicity, persistency and bio-accumulative potential, however, they may pose negative effects on ecosystems, regarding which is a growing global concern. Accordingly, the present review systematically analyses the recent literature to (1) elucidate their worldwide distribution, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification potential, (2) determine their interim water quality criteria (i.e., effect thresholds), and (3) preliminarily assess the ecological risks for 32 OPEs in aquatic ecosystems. The results showed that the spatiotemporal distribution of OPEs was geographically specific and closely related to human activities (i.e., megacities), especially halogenated-OPEs. We also found that precipitation of airborne particulates could affect the concentrations of OPEs in soil, and there was a positive correlation between the bioaccumulation and hydrophobicity of OPEs. Tris(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate may exhibit high bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms. A substantial difference was found among interim water quality criteria for OPEs, partly attributable to the variation of their available toxicity data. Tris(phenyl) phosphate (TPHP) and tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate with the lowest predicted no-effect concentration showed the strongest toxicity of growth and reproduction. Through the application of the risk quotient and joint probability curve, TPHP and tris(chloroethyl) phosphate tended to pose moderate risks, which should receive more attention for risk management. Future research should focus on knowledge gaps in the mechanism of biomagnification, derivation of water quality criteria, and more precise assessment of ecological risks for OPEs.

Plasmatic B-esterases as potential biomarkers of exposure to marine plastics in loggerhead turtles

Sea turtles are particularly vulnerable to plastic exposures, and the associated chemical additives, due to their feeding strategies. The species Caretta caretta is a proposed sentinel of plastic pollution worldwide. Thus, there is a need to find adequate biomarkers of plastic exposure through non-invasive protocols for this IUCN protected species. Plasmatic acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) and carboxylesterase (CE) which participate in xenobiotic and endogenous metabolic reactions could all serve as biomarkers, as they are responsive to plasticizers and have already proved adequate for identifying organophosphorus esters exposures. Here we measured plasmatic B-esterases in wild specimens captured as accidental by-catch. Measurements were taken in each individual either at entry into the rehabilitation program or immediately before release after a recovery period. For CE measurements, 4 commercial substrates were used as potentially indicative of distinct enzyme isoforms. Increased activity was seen with the butyrate-derived substrates. Plasmatic CE activities were over one order of magnitude higher than AChE and BuChE substrates. Moreover, an in vitro protocol with the inclusion of plastic additives such as tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), bisphenol A and some of its analogues was considered a proxy of enzymatic interactions. A clear inhibition by TBBPA was found when using commercially purified AChE and recombinant CE proteins. Overall, from in vitro and in vivo evidences, CEs in plasma are sensitive and easily measurable and have been shown to significantly increase after turtles have been rehabilitated in rescue centres. Nevertheless, the inclusion of plastic (or plasticizers) characterisation would help to confirm its association with plasmatic enzyme modifications before they can be adopted as biomarkers of plastic contamination.

Polymer composition analysis of plastic debris ingested by loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) in Southern Tyrrhenian Sea through ATR-FTIR spectroscopy

The ingestion of anthropogenic plastic debris by marine wildlife is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea. The endangered status (in the IUCN Red List) of Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta, Linnaeus, 1758) is a consequence of its vulnerability. In this study, macro-/meso-plastics (5-170 mm) collected from faeces of twelve loggerhead turtles rescued (live) in the Aeolian Archipelago (Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy) were analyzed by size, weight, shape, color and polymer type through Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). The defecation rate during hospitalization (7-14 days) varied among turtles (from 0.08 to 0.58). The mean number of plastic expulsions (2.7 ± 1.8 items for turtle) was higher during the 5th day of hospitalization (Kruskal-Wallis test, P = 0.01). However, the mean number of plastic-like items defecated during the common days of hospitalization did not vary among turtles (Kruskal-Wallis test, P > 0.05). All turtles were found to have ingested plastic. A total of 114 debris items were recovered from their faeces, 113 of which were identified as plastic. Their color was mostly white-transparent (64.9%) and light (19.3%). Shape was mainly fragments (52.6%), sheets (38.6%), followed by nylon, net-fragments, elastic plastic, foamed plastic and industrial granules (8.8%). Meso-plastics (5-25 mm) represented 72% of the total number of debris and were found more frequently in turtle with Curved Carapace Length (CCL) ≤ 60 cm (CCL = 30-60 cm, n = 5) than those with CCL >60 cm (CCL = 60-71 cm, n = 7). Plastic items were composed mainly of polyethylene (48.2%) and polypropylene (34.2%). Polypropylene (R² = 0.95, P < 0.001) and polyisoprene (R² = 0.45, P = 0.017) were more common in meso-plastics while polyethylene (R² = 0.44, P < 0.01) in macro-plastics. Finally, high-density polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamide and polyurethane were also found in some turtles. This study reveals high spreads of plastic contamination in faeces of both turtles with CCL ≤60 cm and CCL >60 cm, particularly vulnerable to the increasing quantity of floating plastic into their foraging sites highlighting the need of further research to associate debris ingestion with turtle diet and their size.

Phthalate esters (PAEs) concentration pattern reflects dietary habitats (δ13C) in blood of Mediterranean loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta)

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are classified as endocrine disruptors, but it remains unclear if they can enter the marine food-web and result in severe health effects for organisms. Loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) can be chronically exposed to PAEs by ingesting plastic debris, but no information is available about PAEs levels in blood, and how these concentrations are related to diet during different life stages. This paper investigated, for the first time, six PAEs in blood of 18 wild-caught Mediterranean loggerhead turtles throughout solid-phase extraction coupled with gas chromatography-ion trap/mass spectrometry. Stable isotope analyses of carbon and nitrogen were also performed to assess the resource use pattern of loggerhead turtles. DEHP (12-63 ng mL^-1) and DBP (6-57 ng mL^-1) were the most frequently represented PAEs, followed by DiBP, DMP, DEP and DOP. The total PAEs concentration was highest in three turtles (124-260 ng mL^-1) whereas three other turtles had concentrations below the detection limit. PAEs were clustered in three groups according to concentration in all samples: DEHP in the first group, DBP, DEP, and DiBP in the second group, and DOP and DMP in the third group. The total phthalates concentration did not differ between large-sized (96.3 ± 86.0 ng mL^-1) and small-sized (67.1 ± 34.2 ng mL^-1) turtles (p < 0.001). However, DMP and DEP were found only in large-sized turtles and DiBP and DBP had higher concentrations in large-sized turtles. On the other hand, DEHP and DOP were found in both small- and large-sized turtles with similar concentrations, i.e. ~ 21.0/32.0 ng mL^-1 and ~ 7^.1/9.9 ng mL^-1, respectively. Winsored robust models indicated that δ¹³C is a good predictor for DBP and DiBP concentrations (significant Akaike Information criterion weight, AIC_wt). Our results indicate that blood is a good matrix to evaluate acute exposure to PAEs in marine turtles. Moreover, this approach is here suggested as a useful tool to explain the internal dose of PAEs in term of dietary habits (δ¹³C), suggesting that all marine species at high trophic levels may be particularly exposed to PAEs, despite their different dietary habitats and levels of exposure.

A Novel Ex Vivo Approach Based on Proteomics and Biomarkers to Evaluate the Effects of Chrysene, MEHP, and PBDE-47 on Loggerhead Sea Turtles (Caretta caretta)

The principal aim of the present study was to develop and apply novel ex vivo tests as an alternative to cell cultures able to evaluate the possible effects of emerging and legacy contaminants in Caretta caretta. To this end, we performed ex vivo experiments on non-invasively collected whole-blood and skin-biopsy slices treated with chrysene, MEHP, or PBDE-47. Blood samples were tested by oxidative stress (TAS), immune system (respiratory burst, lysozyme, and complement system), and genotoxicity (ENA assay) biomarkers, and genotoxic and immune system effects were observed. Skin slices were analyzed by applying a 2D-PAGE/MS proteomic approach, and specific contaminant signatures were delineated on the skin proteomic profile. These reflect biochemical effects induced by each treatment and allowed to identify glutathione S-transferase P, peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase A, mimecan, and protein S100-A6 as potential biomarkers of the health-threatening impact the texted toxicants have on C. caretta. Obtained results confirm the suitability of the ex vivo system and indicate the potential risk the loggerhead sea turtle is undergoing in the natural environment. In conclusion, this work proved the relevance that the applied ex vivo models may have in testing the toxicity of other compounds and mixtures and in biomarker discovery.

Organophosphate ester plasticizers in edible fish from the Mediterranean Sea: Marine pollution and human exposure

Concentrations of organophosphate esters (OPEs) plasticizers were analysed in the present study. Fifty-five fish samples belonging to three highly commercial species, European sardine (Sardina pilchardus), European anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus), and European hake (Merluccius merluccius), were taken from the Western Mediterranean Sea. OPEs were detected in all individuals, except for two hake samples, with concentrations between 0.38 and 73.4 ng/g wet weight (ww). Sardines presented the highest mean value with 20.5 ± 20.1 ng/g ww, followed by anchovies with 14.1 ± 8.91 ng/g ww and hake with 2.48 ± 1.76 ng/g ww. The lowest OPE concentrations found in hake, which is a partial predator of anchovy and sardine, and the higher δ¹⁵N values (as a proxy of trophic position), may indicate the absence of OPEs biomagnification. Eleven out of thirteen tested OPEs compounds were detected, being diphenyl cresyl phosphate (DCP) one of the most frequently detected in all the species. The highest concentration values were obtained for tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDClPP), trihexyl phosphate (THP), and tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP), for sardines, anchovies, and hakes, respectively. The human health risk associated with the consumption of these fish species showing that their individual consumption would not pose a considerable threat to public health regarding OPE intake.