Control of odor emissions from livestock farms: A review

Multi-scenario adaptive electronic nose for the detection of environmental odor pollutants

With the rapid development of sensing technologies, electronic noses have become an important tool for real-time environmental monitoring, but ensuring their applicability and accuracy across various scenarios remains a key challenge. In this study, an electronic nose system with multi-scenario applicability and enhanced accuracy was developed to measure four common key pollutant concentrations in three typical pollution scenarios: landfills, wastewater treatment plants and livestock farms. A scenario-adaptive strategy was proposed to minimize the impact of interferences on the measurement accuracy by constructing a hierarchically structured qualitative-scenario-specific qualitative sub-network to process the sensor response data. Random Forest and Support Vector Machine algorithms were used and evaluated in scenario classification, with the Random Forest model performing best, achieving 100 % classification accuracy for 176 samples across all scenarios. Subsequently, scenario-specific qualitative models and unified model were developed with Random Forest Regression (RFR) and Artificial Neuron Networks (ANNs) after eliminating sensor features affected highly by interferences with feature importance analysis. The scenario-adaptive strategy achieved R² values exceeding 0.88 in target pollutant concentration prediction across all scenarios, with a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) reduction of at least 15 % compared with the unified model for the test set. Furthermore, by flexibly integrating the most applicable algorithms, the scenario-adaptive strategy allows the benefits of different algorithms to be fully utilized in various scenarios. This study highlights the effectiveness of the adaptive strategy in improving electronic nose performance across various scenarios, laying a foundation for robust, adaptive electronic nose systems.

Meta-analyses of the global impact of non-antibiotic feed additives on livestock performance and health

INTRODUCTION

The impact of non-antibiotic feed additives on livestock performance and health is contingent upon a multitude of variables, including the animal species, dosage and type of feed additives, and duration of oral administration. However, there is a paucity of knowledge regarding the relationship between these factors and the performance of livestock animals.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to conduct a global meta-analysis based on a pool of empirical studies to investigate the effects of dietary additives on growth, production, blood metabolites, immunity, intestinal morphology, and the abundance of gut microbiota in livestock.

METHODS

A meta-regression coupled with dose-effect analysis was performed to ascertain the optimal dosage and feeding duration for the optimal body function. A total of 71 papers, estimating 1, 035 effect size across 9 species and 7 types of non-antibiotic feed additives were recruited in our meta-dataset.

RESULTS

Overall assessment confirmed that these additives in diet can significantly improve livestock production and immune function across species. Our findings indicated that the effects of additives on animal performance were more pronounced in herbivores than in omnivores. The dose-response results indicated that the overall optimal doses for antimicrobial peptides, enzymes, oligosaccharides, organic acids, phytogenic, probiotics and prebiotics were 100 mg/kg, 30 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg, 10⁶ CFU/kg, and 10 mg/kg, respectively. Oral administration of these additives for a 2-month period effectively improves livestock performance and health.

CONCLUSION

This evidence-based approach provides a foundation for implementing customized feeding strategies designed to optimize livestock performance, enhance immunity and reduce feed costs. Our assessment shows that these feed additives are promising alternatives to antibiotics in reducing the use of antibiotics. Furthermore, these findings suggest that the use of these feed additives can lead to evidence-based recommendations for practical feeding strategies, providing livestock producers with a sustainable and cost-effective approach to animal health management.

Impact of C/N/P dietary nutrient on manure characteristics: Pollutant fractions and microbial community

Regulation of labile fraction of excreted manure represents a promising advance for environmental pollution mitigation. However, investigation of the properties of various pollutant fractions within manure and potential influence of dietary nutrient fractions on the release of labile manure remains unclear. Feeding trials involving pigs at three distinct growth stages fed by diets with nine different energy levels were conducted and the characteristics of labile manure generated under various treatments based on nutrient profiles were analyzed. The impact of dietary nutrient fractions on variables such as labile manure pollutants, pig performance, manure weight and dominant microorganisms were evaluated via theoretical modeling and correlation analysis. The results indicated that critical dietary nutrient factors such as dietary C fraction, protein N-materials and dietary P fraction varied respectively with pig growth stages. The labile manure composition and proportion were influenced by dietary C/N/P fractions and indigestible components, through regulation of the structure of the gut microbiota and the relative abundance of gut microbes. This study finds that initiating dietary regulatory measures could effectively control the release of labile manure and reduce its proportion in the overall manure and thus, provides a novel approach to achieve manure source pollution control, ensure environmental-friendly diet formula and mitigate manure-related environmental pollution.

Efficacy of composite bacterial deodorant constructed with Camellia sinensis and its in-situ deodorization mechanism on pig manure

Here, we constructed a novel bacterial deodorant (BD) composed of Delftia tsuruhatensis, Paracoccus denitrificans, Pediococcus acidilactici, and Bacillus velezensis. The BD alone removed 64.84 % of NH3, 100 % of H2S, and 63.68 % of comprehensive odor (OU) during a five-day fermentation of pig manure. The effect was enhanced by introducing Camellia sinensis in the composite bacterial deodorant (CBD) treatment, with the removal efficiency (RE) of NH3 and OU being 88.68 % and 88.14 %, respectively. In prolonged trials, maximum RE of NH3, H2S and OU RE reached 90.16 %, 92.32 % and 100 % in CBD group. Bacterial composition of manure revealed that the abundance of odor-producing microbes (Kurthia, Solibacillus, Proteiniphilum and Acholeplasma) and potential pathogens decreased after CBD application. Functional prediction and correlation analyses indicated that the process of nitrification, denitrification and S/N assimilation were facilitated, while S/N mineralization and methanogenesis processes might be inhibited. This deodorant promoted the conversion of malodorous substances into non-odorous forms, establishing an efficient odor removal system in hoggery. Therefore, the bacterial deodorant compounded with C. sinensis has been shown to be an effective method for deodorizing pig farms. This approach will advance the livestock industry toward greener practices and environmental protection, contributing positively to the development of a sustainable agro-ecosystem.

Prolactin Inhibition Promotes Follicle Recruitment by Increasing PIKfyve Expression in Ewes During the Estrus Stage

Prolactin (PRL) plays a key role in the growth and ovulation of animal follicles, but its impact on follicular recruitment in ewes remains uncertain. In this study, a total of sixteen healthy ewes (Hu sheep, aged 2-3 years, with continuous reproduction and housed separately), matched for parity and weight (52.98 ± 0.96 kg), were randomly assigned to two groups: a control group (C) and a treatment group (T, PRL inhibition). Ovaries were collected in vivo after anesthesia during the estrus stage, and tissue morphology was observed using hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining. By using RNA sequencing on the ovaries of C and T groups and conducting bioinformatics analysis, the essential genes and pathways involved in the regulation of PRL inhibition were pinpointed. Subcellular localization of key genes in ovarian tissue was determined using a fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) assay and immunohistochemistry. The function of key genes was validated using knockout and overexpression techniques. During the estrus phase, we noted a marked rise in the count of large follicles within ovarian tissue following the inhibition of prolactin. In total, 328 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were detected, with 162 upregulated and 166 downregulated. The results indicated that inhibiting PRL primarily influences follicle recruitment by acting on the target gene PIKfyve. Following the inhibition of PRL during the estrus phase, there was an increase in the expression of PIKfyve. PIKfyve was primarily localized in the ovarian granulosa cells (GCs) and cumulus cells (CCs) in the ovarian tissue of ewes. The overexpression of PIKfyve decreased cell apoptosis and enhanced steroid hormone release, whereas knockout of PIKfyve had the reverse effect. In conclusion, PRL inhibition promoted follicle recruitment in ewes by upregulating PIKfyve during the estrus stage.

Alteration of growth performance and characterization of pathological lesions in long-term ammonia-exposed pigs

Ammonia (NH3) is a major cause of odor emissions from swine farms, and exposure to high concentrations of NH3 in short-term periods has been reported to cause respiratory and systemic disorders in pigs. However, the impact of long-term NH3 exposure on pig health and productivity remain unknown. This study aimed to assess the impact of long-term NH3 exposure on growth performance and pathological outcomes in pigs. Pigs were reared in the treatment room [34.8 mg/m3 NH3 concentration (50 ppm); TRT group, n = 40] and the control room [5.6 mg/m3 (8 ppm); CON, n = 40]. The experimental period was 107 days (from weaning piglets to market age). Our findings revealed that long-term NH3 exposure results in severe respiratory and systemic pathological lesions, including chronic tracheitis, epithelial metaplasia of the trachea, severe interstitial pneumonia, myocarditis, and interstitial nephritis. In addition, the TRT group exhibited reduced productivity, with two deaths, indicating that uncontrolled NH3 concentrations on pig farms could be linked to a decline in growth performance and even death. Transcriptomic analysis revealed significant changes in immune and inflammatory pathways in lung from TRT pigs, including dysregulated cytokine signaling and incomplete inflammatory responses. The enrichment of DEGs in pathways, such as Cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, JAK-STAT, and Toll-like receptor signaling, indicated chronic NH3 exposure disrupted immune homeostasis, contributing to chronic inflammation and impaired tissue repair. In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into the detrimental effects of NH3 exposure on pig health and productivity under farm conditions.

The production of methyl mercaptan is the main odor source of chicken manure treated with a vertical aerobic fermenter

The process of harmless treatment of livestock manure produces a large amount of odor, which poses a potential threat to human and livestock health. A vertical fermentation tank system is commonly used for the environmentally sound treatment of chicken manure in China, but the composition and concentration of the odor produced and the factors affecting odor emissions remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the types and concentrations of odors produced in the mixing room (MR), vertical fermenter (VF), and aging room (AR) of the system, and analyzed the effects of bacterial communities and metabolic genes on odor production. The results revealed that 34, 26 and 26 odors were detected in the VF, MR and AR, respectively. The total odor concentration in the VF was 66613 ± 10097, which was significantly greater than that in the MR (1157 ± 675) and AR (1143 ± 1005) (P < 0.001), suggesting that the VF was the main source of odor in the vertical fermentation tank system. Methyl mercaptan had the greatest contribution to the odor produced by VF, reaching 47.82%, and the concentration was 0.6145 ± 0.2164 mg/m3. The abundance of metabolic genes did not correlate significantly with odor production, but PICRUSt analysis showed that cysteine and methionine metabolism involved in methyl mercaptan production was significantly more enriched in MR and VF than in AR. Bacillus was the most abundant genus in the VF, with a relative abundance significantly greater than that in the MR (P < 0.05). The RDA results revealed that Bacillus was significantly and positively correlated with methyl mercaptan. The use of large-scale aerobic fermentation systems to treat chicken manure needs to focused on the production of methyl mercaptan.

Comprehensive assessment of refined greenhouse gas emissions from China's livestock sector

Livestock and poultry products are an essential human food source. However, the rapid development of the livestock sector (LS) has caused it to become a significant source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Consequently, investigating the spatio-temporal characteristics and evolution of GHG emissions is crucial to facilitate the green development of the LS and achieve "peak carbon and carbon neutrality". This study combined life cycle assessment (LCA) with the IPCC Tier II method to construct a novel GHG emissions inventory. The GHG emissions of 31 provinces in China from 2000 to 2021 were calculated, and their spatio-temporal characteristics were revealed. Then, the stochastic impacts by regression on population, affluence, and technology (STIRPAT) model was used to identify the main driving factors of GHG emissions in six regions of China and explore the emission reduction potential. The results showed that GHG emissions increased and then decreased from 2000 to 2021, following a gradual and steady trend. The peak of 628.55 Mt CO2-eq was reached in 2006. The main GHG-producing segments were enteric fermentation, slaughtering and processing, and manure management, accounting for 45.39 %, 26.34 %, and 23.08 % of total GHG emissions, respectively. Overall, the center of gravity of GHG emissions in China migrated northward, with spatial aggregation observed since 2016. The high emission intensity regions were mainly located west of the "Hu Huanyong line". Economic efficiency and emissions intensity were the main drivers of GHG emissions. Under the baseline scenario, GHG emissions are not projected to peak until 2050. Therefore, urgent action is needed to promote the low-carbon green development of the LS in China. The results can serve as scientific references for the macro-prevention and control of GHG emissions, aiding strategic decision-making. Additionally, they can provide new ideas for GHG accounting in China and other countries around the world.

Odor emission pattern of the waste storage workshop of kitchen waste treatment plant and control strategy study with CFD simulation

Odor emission has become a great issue for kitchen waste management plants. Among all, unorganized emission source such as waste storage tank is the key cause. It is necessary to understand the odor emission characteristics and provide a proper control solution. In this study, a typical kitchen waste treatment plant located in Guangdong Province of China was selected to investigate the odor emission characteristics. According to the survey, the main complaint due to odor emission is on waste storage workshop. Hence, its odor emission has been investigated in this study. The gas samples were collected from the workshop in different season. According to the results, the odor emission during summer is the worst. In total, 105 odorous gases were detected from the waste storage workshop. The main odorous gases can be categorized into sulfur compounds, oxygen-containing organic compounds and terpenes. In specific, ethanol, acetic acid, methylmercaptan, α-pinene, methioether and limonene were the major odorous pollutants. Based on grey correlation, principal component analysis (PCA) and step-up regression analysis, methylmercaptan contributes the most to the odor concentration. It suggests that the odor emission control should pay more attention on methylmercaptan. The Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) stimulation was employed to investigate the odor distribution with applying air blowing as a curtain to separate the inside and outside atmosphere or suction to vacuum the inside air to prevent the odor emission. It was found that it could efficiently prevent odor emission by setting a 45° inclined air suction port at the top of the entrance gate. The study provides a theoretical basis on odor control for the waste storage workshop of kitchen waste management plants.

In situ synthesis of porous metal-organic frameworks NH2-UiO-66 on tea stem biochar and application in odours adsorption

Multiple odour nuisance in livestock farming is a notorious problem that has a significant impact on the living environment of surrounding communities. Adsorbents based on metal-organic framework (MOF) materials show great promise for controlling odour pollution, as they offer a high specific surface area, a controllable structure and an abundance of active sites. However, the MOF formation process is prone to problems such as pore clogging or collapse and reduced porosity, which limits its further application. In this study, a series of odour adsorbents were prepared by in situ growth of NH2-UiO-66 on tea stem biochar (TSBC) using a hydrothermal method and named UiO (Zr)-TSBCx. The physical and chemical properties and composition of UiO (Zr)-TSBCx have been systematically characterized using SEM, TEM, XRD, FT-IR, N2 adsorption-desorption and XPS. The release of odours from the pig farm effluent was monitored using in-situ continuous Proton-Transfer-Reaction Mass Spectrometry (PTR-MS), and the obtained primary compositions were tested for further adsorption. In dynamic adsorption experiments focused on butyric acid, UiO (Zr)-TSBC2 showed a high adsorption capacity of 3.99 × 105 μg/g and exceptional structural stability. UiO (Zr)-TSBC2 showed variable adsorption efficiencies for different odorous gases, with the best performance for the removal of ammonia, toluene and butyric acid. It also demonstrated the ability to rapidly mitigate instantaneous high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), methanethiol and toluene resulting from agitation. Additionally, based on the relationship between the adsorption amount and the structural characteristics of the adsorbent as well as the nature of the odours, a possible adsorption mechanism of UiO (Zr)-TSBC2 for a variety of odours released from pig farm effluent was proposed. This work demonstrates a novel approach to promote deodorization applications in livestock and poultry farming environments by the in-situ growth of NH2-UiO-66 on biochar prepared from tea stem.

Simultaneous removal of ammonia and sulfur odorants in biotrickling filters and N2O production

Research on the stability evaluation of biotrickling filters (BTFs) under harsh conditions and the bacterial adaptation process still needs to be improved. Herein, BTFs with polypropylene plastic (PP) and ceramic raschig rings (CRR) were investigated for a better understanding of the biodegradation of ammonia (NH3), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and dimethyl sulfide (DMS). The results showed an excellent performance in removal efficiency (RE) for NH3 (91.6 %-99.9 %), H2S (RE: 55.3 %-99.5 %), and DMS (RE: 10.6 %-99.9 %). It was found that a more apparent positive correlation between N2O emission and pressure drop in CRR BTF (R2 = 0.92) than in PP BTF (R2 = 0.79) (P < 0.01). Low temperature promotes an increase in the abundance ofComamonasandBacillus. The polysaccharides in PP and CRR reactors decreased by 78.6 % and 68.1 % when temperature reduced from 25℃ to 8℃. This work provides a novel insight into understanding bacterial survival under harsh BTF environments.

A critical review on characterization, human health risk assessment and mitigation of malodorous gaseous emission during the composting process

Composting has emerged as a suitable method to convert or transform organic waste including manure, green waste, and food waste into valuable products with several advantages, such as high efficiency, cost feasibility, and being environmentally friendly. However, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), mainly malodorous gases, are the major concern and challenges to overcome in facilitating composting. Ammonia (NH3) and volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs), including hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and methyl mercaptan (CH4S), primarily contributed to the malodorous gases emission during the entire composting process due to their low olfactory threshold. These compounds are mainly emitted at the thermophilic phase, accounting for over 70% of total gas emissions during the whole process, whereas methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) are commonly detected during the mesophilic and cooling phases. Therefore, the human health risk assessment of malodorous gases using various indexes such as ECi (maximum exposure concentration for an individual volatile compound EC), HR (non-carcinogenic risk), and CR (carcinogenic risk) has been evaluated and discussed. Also, several strategies such as maintaining optimal operating conditions, and adding bulking agents and additives (e.g., biochar and zeolite) to reduce malodorous emissions have been pointed out and highlighted. Biochar has specific adsorption properties such as high surface area and high porosity and contains various functional groups that can adsorb up to 60%-70% of malodorous gases emitted from composting. Notably, biofiltration emerged as a resilient and cost-effective technique, achieving up to 90% reduction in malodorous gases at the end-of-pipe. This study offers a comprehensive insight into the characterization of malodorous emissions during composting. Additionally, it emphasizes the need to address these issues on a larger scale and provides a promising outlook for future research.

Effects of Bacillus-based inoculum on odor emissions co-regulation, nutrient element transformations and microbial community tropological structures during chicken manure and sawdust composting

This study aims to evaluate whether different doses of Bacillus-based inoculum inoculated in chicken manure and sawdust composting will provide distinct effects on the co-regulation of ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S), nutrient conversions and microbial topological structures. Results indicate that the Bacillus-based inoculum inhibits NH3 emissions mainly by regulating bacterial communities, while promotes H2S emissions by regulating both bacterial and fungal communities. The inoculum only has a little effect on total organic carbon (TOC) and inhibits total sulfur (TS) and total phosphorus (TP) accumulations. Low dose inoculation inhibits total potassium (TK) accumulation, while high dose inoculation promotes TK accumulation and the opposite is true for total nitrogen (TN). The inoculation slightly affects the bacterial compositions, significantly alters the fungal compositions and increases the microbial cooperation, thus influencing the compost substances transformations. The microbial communities promote ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N), TN, available phosphorus (AP), total potassium (TK) and TS, but inhibit nitrate nitrogen (NO3--N), TP and TK. Additionally, the bacterial communities promote, while the fungal communities inhibit the nitrite nitrogen (NO2--N) production. The core bacterial and fungal genera regulate NH3 and H2S emissions through the secretions of metabolic enzymes and the promoting or inhibiting effects on NH3 and H2S emissions are always opposite. Hence, Bacillus-based inoculum cannot regulate the NH3 and H2S emissions simultaneously.

A review of mitigation technologies and management strategies for greenhouse gas and air pollutant emissions in livestock production

One of the key issues in manure management of livestock production is to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) and air pollutant emissions, which lead to significant environmental footprint and human/animal health threats. This study provides a review of potentially efficacious technologies and management strategies that reduce GHG and air pollutant emissions during the three key stages of manure management in livestock production, i.e., animal housing, manure storage and treatment, and manure application. Several effective mitigation technologies and practices for each manure management stage are identified and analyzed in detail, including feeding formulation adjustment, frequent manure removal and air scrubber during animal housing stage; solid-liquid separation, manure covers for storage, acidification, anaerobic digestion and composting during manure storage and treatment stage; land application techniques at appropriate timing during manure application stage. The results indicated several promising approaches to reduce multiple gas emissions from the entire manure management. Removing manure 2-3 times per week or every day during animal housing stage is an effective and simple way to reduce GHG and air pollutant emissions. Acidification during manure storage and treatment stage can reduce ammonia and methane emissions by 33%-93% and 67%-87%, respectively and proper acid, such as lactic acid can also reduce nitrous oxide emission by about 90%. Shallow injection of manure for field application has the best performance in reducing ammonia emission by 62%-70% but increase nitrous oxide emission. The possible trade-off brings insight to the prioritization of targeted gas emissions for the researchers, stakeholders and policymakers, and also highlights the importance of assessing the mitigation technologies across the entire manure management chain. Implementing a combination of the management strategies needs comprehensive considerations about mitigation efficiency, technical feasibility, local regulations, climate condition, scalability and cost-effectiveness.

Optimizing Winter Air Quality in Pig-Fattening Houses: A Plasma Deodorization Approach

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of two circulation modes of a plasma deodorization unit on the air environment of pig-fattening houses in winter. Two pig-fattening houses were selected, one of which was installed with a plasma deodorizing device with two modes of operation, alternating internal and external circulation on a day-by-day basis. The other house did not have any form of treatment and was used as the control house. Upon installing the system, this study revealed that in the internal circulation mode, indoor temperature and humidity were sustained at elevated levels, with the NH3 and H2S concentrations decreasing by 63.87% and 100%, respectively, in comparison to the control house. Conversely, in the external circulation mode, the indoor temperature and humidity remained subdued, accompanied by a 16.43% reduction in CO2 concentration. The adept interchange between these two operational modes facilitates the regulation of indoor air quality within a secure environment. This not only effectively diminishes deleterious gases in the pig-fattening house but also achieves the remote automation of environmental monitoring and hazardous gas management; thereby, it mitigates the likelihood of diseases and minimizes breeding risks.

Assessment of a Novel Real-Time Bio-Liquor Circulation System for Manure Management and Mitigation of Odor Potential in Swine Farming

Recently, circulating biologically treated manure in slurry pits has been used as an odor reduction technology, but few successful results have been reported, due to the lack of proper control strategies for bioreactors. This study was conducted to investigate the performance of the developed real-time controlled bio-liquor circulation system (BCS) at farm scale. The BCS was operated sequentially as per swine manure inflow (anoxic, aerobic, and settling) circulation to the slurry pit. Each operational phase was self-adjusted in real-time using a novel algorithm for detecting the control point on the oxidation reduction potential (ORP) and pH (mV)-time profiles, the nitrogen break point (NBP), and the nitrate knee point (NKP) in the aerobic and anoxic phases, respectively. The NH4-N in the slurry manure was thoroughly removed (100%) in the bioreactor, optimizing the duration of each operational phase by accurately detecting real-time control points. The newly developed real-time BCS decreased the nitrogen and organic matter in the slurry pit by >70%, and the potential ammonia and methane emissions by 75% and 95%, respectively. This study highlights that improved BCS that utilizes ORP tracking and pH (mV)-time profiles can effectively optimize BCS operation, and thereby reduce malodor and GHG emissions from swine farms.

Food waste anaerobic digestion plants: Underestimated air pollutants and control strategy

Food waste management is an important global issue, and anaerobic digestion (AD) is a sustainable technology for treating food waste and developing a circular economy. Odor and health problems in AD plants have drawn increasing public attention. Therefore, this study investigated the odor characteristics and health risks in different workshops of food waste AD plants. At each site, the treatment capacities for kitchen and restaurant waste were 200 and 200-250 tons per day, respectively. Among the detected odorants, ethanol was the dominant component in terms of concentrations, while methanethiol, propanethiol, H2S, and acetaldehyde were the major odor contributors in different workshops. The odor contribution of propanethiol had been previously overlooked in several workshops. The unloading, pretreatment, and bio-hydrolysis workshops were identified as major areas requiring odor control. Besides odor, carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks commonly existed in food waste AD plants. The carcinogenic risk of acetaldehyde had been underestimated previously, and it was identified as the dominant carcinogen. Furthermore, benzene was a potential carcinogen. Non-carcinogenic risks were mainly caused by acetaldehyde, H2S, and ethyl acetate. The health risks were not always consistent with odor nuisance. Based on the odor and health risk assessments, several air pollution control strategies for food waste AD plants were proposed, including food waste source control, in-situ pollution control, and ex-situ pollution control.