Evaluation of cytotoxic, apoptotic, mutagenic, and chemopreventive activities of semi-synthetic esters of gallic acid

Antioxidants: a comprehensive review

Antioxidants had a growing interest owing to their protective roles in food and pharmaceutical products against oxidative deterioration and in the body and against oxidative stress-mediated pathological processes. Screening of antioxidant properties of plants and plant derived compounds requires appropriate methods, which address the mechanism of antioxidant activity and focus on the kinetics of the reactions including the antioxidants. Many studies have been conducted with evaluating antioxidant activity of various samples of research interest using by different methods in food and human health. These methods were classified methods described and discussed in this review. Methods based on inhibited autoxidation are the most suited for termination-enhancing antioxidants and, for chain-breaking antioxidants while different specific studies are needed for preventive antioxidants. For this purpose, the most commonly methods used in vitro determination of antioxidant capacity of food and pharmaceutical constituents are examined and also a selection of chemical testing methods is critically reviewed and highlighting. In addition, their advantages, disadvantages, limitations and usefulness were discussed and investigated for pure molecules and raw plant extracts. The effect and influence of the reaction medium on performance of antioxidants is also addressed. Hence, this overview provides a basis and rationale for developing standardized antioxidant capacity methods for the food, nutraceuticals, and dietary supplement industries. Also, the most important advantages and shortcomings of each method were detected and highlighted. The underlying chemical principles of these methods have been explained and thoroughly analyzed. The chemical principles of methods of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH•) radical scavenging, 2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonate) radical (ABTS·+) scavenging, ferric ions (Fe3+) reducing assay, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay, cupric ions (Cu2+) reducing power assay (Cuprac), Folin-Ciocalteu reducing capacity (FCR assay), superoxide radical anion (O2·-), hydroxyl radical (OH·) scavenging, peroxyl radical (ROO·) removing, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) decomposing, singlet oxygen (1O2) quenching assay, nitric oxide radical (NO·) scavenging assay and chemiluminescence assay are overviewed and critically discussed. Also, the general antioxidant aspects of the main food and pharmaceutical components were discussed through several methods currently used for detecting antioxidant properties of these components. This review consists of two main sections. The first section is devoted to the main components in food and their pharmaceutical applications. The second general section includes definitions of the main antioxidant methods commonly used for determining the antioxidant activity of components. In addition, some chemical, mechanistic, and kinetic properties, as well as technical details of the above mentioned methods, are provided. The general antioxidant aspects of main food components have been discussed through various methods currently used to detect the antioxidant properties of these components.

Cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of tert-butylhydroquinone, butylated hydroxyanisole and propyl gallate as synthetic food antioxidants

Synthetic food antioxidants such as tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), and propyl gallate (PG) have been extensively utilized in different food industries because of their high protectant activities to stop food spoilage and remove foodborne diseases in humans and animals. It would be emphasized that increasing the intake of antioxidants through intracellular may lead to cyto/genotoxicity, and their complex formation with biological molecules eventually accelerate the progress of various diseases like multiple sclerosis, diabetes, neurological disorders, cardiac vascular disease, cancer, etc. Therefore, their toxicity is one of the challenging subjects due to their extensive use in food-related industries. TBHQ, BHA, and PG antioxidants have cytotoxic, genotoxic, and carcinogenic effects if absorbed in high doses through the gastrointestinal tract. Thermodynamic parameters presented that the hydrophobic bind plays a key role in the complexation of the TBHQ, BHA, and PG with albumin. The molecular modeling results showed that subdomain IIA plays a vital role in the interaction of TBHQ and BHA with albumin. To comprehend the mechanisms of the cyto/genotoxicity effects of these food antioxidants and conformational alterations of albumin macromolecule, we aim to overview numerous types of research that evaluated the cyto/genotoxicity effects of these antioxidants using several procedures.

The Potential Health Benefits of Gallic Acid: Therapeutic and Food Applications

Gallic acid (GA), a phenolic acid found in fruits and vegetables, has been consumed by humans for centuries. Its extensive health benefits, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral properties, have been well-documented. GA's potent antioxidant capabilities enable it to neutralize free radicals, reduce oxidative stress, and protect cells from damage. Additionally, GA exerts anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting inflammatory cytokines and enzymes, making it a potential therapeutic agent for inflammatory diseases. It also demonstrates anticancer properties by inhibiting cancer cell growth and promoting apoptosis. Furthermore, GA offers cardiovascular benefits, such as lowering blood pressure, decreasing cholesterol, and enhancing endothelial function, which may aid in the prevention and management of cardiovascular diseases. This review covers the chemical structure, sources, identification and quantification methods, and biological and therapeutic properties of GA, along with its applications in food. As research progresses, the future for GA appears promising, with potential uses in functional foods, pharmaceuticals, and nutraceuticals aimed at improving overall health and preventing disease. However, ongoing research and innovation are necessary to fully understand its functional benefits, address current challenges, and establish GA as a mainstay in therapeutic and nutritional interventions.

Novel thymohydroquinone gallate derivative loaded ligand modified quantum dots as pH-sensitive multi-modal theragnostic agent for cancer treatment

BACKGROUND

Nanomedicine, as the combination of radiopharmaceutical and nanocarrier (QDs), is developed for treating cancer. Gallic acid is antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-carcinogenic. Typical retention time of gallic acid is approximately 4 to 8 h. To increase the retention time gallic acid is converted to prodrug by adding lipophilic moieties, encapsulating in lipophilic nanoparticles, or liposome formation. Similarly, thymoquinone is powerful antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory effect, with reduced DNA damage.

METHODS

In this study, a hydrophilic drug (gallic acid) is chemically linked to the hydrophobic drug (thymohydroquinone) to overcome the limitations of co-delivery of drugs. Thymohydroquinone (THQG) as the combination of gallic acid (GA) and thymoquinone (THQ) is loaded onto the PEI functionalized antimonene quantum dots (AM-QDs) and characterized by FTIR, UV-visible spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, Zeta sizer, SEM and AFM, in-vitro and in-vivo assay, and hemolysis.

RESULTS

The calculated drug loading efficiency is 90 %. Drug release study suggests the drug combination is pH sensitive and it can encounters acidic pH, releasing the drug from the nanocarrier. The drug and drug-loaded nanocarrier possesses low cytotoxicity and cell viability on MCF-7 and Cal-27 cell lines. The proposed drug delivery system is radiolabeled with Iodine-131 (131I) and Technetium (99mTc) and its deposition in various organs of rats' bodies is examined by SPECT-CT and gamma camera. Hemolytic activity of 2, 4, 6, and 8 μg/mL is 1.78, 4.16, 9.77, and 15.79 %, respectively, reflecting low levels of hemolysis. The system also sustains oxidative stress in cells and environment, decreasing ROS production to shield cells and keep them healthy.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study suggest that the proposed drug carrier system can be used as a multi-modal theragnostic agent in cancer treatment.

Selectivity and Activity of Benzene-1,2,4-triol and its Dimers as Antimicrobial Compounds Against Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri

Citrus canker, caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri, is one of the main threats to citrus fruit production. Several phenolic compounds active against X. citri have been described in recent years. Benzene-1,2,4-triol is a bio-based phenolic compound that has shown high potential as a scaffold for the synthesis of new anti-X. citri compounds. However, benzene-1,2,4-triol is prone to oxidative dimerization. We evaluated the antibacterial activity of benzene-1,2,4-triol, its oxidized dimers, and analogous compounds. Benzene-1,2,4-triol has a low inhibitory concentration against X. citri (0.05 mM) and is also active against other bacterial species. Spontaneous formation of benzenetriol dimers (e. g. by contact with oxygen in aqueous solution) reduced the antimicrobial activity of benzenetriol solutions. Dimers themselves displayed lower antibacterial activity and where shown to be more stable in solution. Unlike many other phenolic compounds with anti-X. citri activity, benzene-1,2,4-triol does not act by membrane permeabilization, but seems to limit the availability of iron to cells. Benzene-1,2,4-triol is widely recognized as toxic - our results indicate that the toxicity of benzene-1,2,4-triol is largely due to spontaneously formed dimers. Stabilization of benzene-1,2,4-triol will be required to allow the safe use of this compound.

Semi-synthesis of phenolic-amides and their cytotoxicity against THP-1, HeLa, HepG2 and MCF-7 cell lines

In the present study, we derivatized several hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids to phenolic amides (PAMs) via one step BOP mediated amide coupling reactions. Fifteen PAMs were synthesized in >40% yields and were screened for their cytotoxic activities against four cancer cell lines: THP-1 (leukaemia), HeLa (cervical), HepG2 (liver), and MCF-7 (breast), in comparison to 5-flurouracil (5-FU). Four amides showed IC50 ranging from 5 to 55 µM against all four cell lines. In contrast, tetradecyl-gallic-amide (13) affected only THP-1 leukaemia cells with IC50 of 3.08 µM. The activities of these compounds support the promise of phenolic amides as anticancer agents.

Safety assessment of Paeonia lactiflora root extract for a cosmetic ingredient employing the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) approach

Botanical extracts, widely used in cosmetics, pose a challenge to safety assessment due to their complex compositions. The threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) approach, offering a safe exposure level for cosmetic ingredients, proves to be a promising solution for ensuring the safety of cosmetic ingredients with low exposure level. We assessed the safety of Paeonia lactiflora root extract (PLR), commonly used in skin conditioning products, with the TTC. We identified 50 constituents of PLR extract from the USDA database and literature exploration. Concentration of each constituent of PLR extract was determined with the information from USDA references, literature, and experimental analysis. The genotoxicity of PLR and its constituents was assessed in vitro and in silico respectively. Cramer class of the constituents of the PLR extract was determined with Toxtree 3.1 extended decision tree using ChemTunes®. Systemic exposure of each constituent from leave-on type cosmetic products containing PLR at a 1% concentration was estimated and compared with respective TTC threshold. Two constituents exceeding TTC threshold were further analyzed for dermal absorption using in silico tools, which confirmed the safety of PLR extract in cosmetics. Collectively, we demonstrated that the TTC is a useful tool for assessing botanical extract safety in cosmetics.

Liposome-siderophore conjugates loaded with moxifloxacin serve as a model for drug delivery against Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease that annually affects millions of people, and resistance to available antibiotics has exacerbated this situation. Another notable characteristic of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the primary causative agent of TB, is its ability to survive inside macrophages, a key component of the immune system. In our quest for an effective and safe treatment that facilitates the targeted delivery of antibiotics to the site of infection, we have proposed a nanotechnology approach based on an iron chelator. Iron chelators are the primary mechanism by which bacteria acquire iron, a metal essential for their metabolism. Four liposomes were synthesized and characterized using the dynamic light scattering technique (DLS), nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). All of these methods revealed the presence of spherical particles, approximately 200 nm in size. NTA indicated a concentration of around 1011 particles/mL. We also developed and validated a high-performance liquid chromatography method for quantifying Moxifloxacin to determine encapsulation efficiency (EE) and release profiles (RF). The EE was 51.31 % for LipMox and 45.76 % for LipIchMox. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirmed the phagocytosis of liposomal vesicles by macrophages. Functionalizing liposomes with iron chelators can offer significant benefits for TB treatment, such as targeted drug delivery to intracellular bacilli through the phagocytosis of liposomal particles by cells like macrophages.

Molecular docking, ADMET profiling of gallic acid and its derivatives (N-alkyl gallamide) as apoptosis agent of breast cancer MCF-7 Cells

Background

In 2020, breast cancer has become the most common cancer in the world and in Indonesia. Searching for anticancer drugs using computational methods is considered more effective and selective than other methods. Gallic acid and its derivatives (esters and amides) are compounds that have biological activities such as anticancer effects. The purpose of this study was to analyse the molecular modelling and ADMET (Adsorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion and Toxicity) profile of gallic acid derivative compounds (N-alkyl gallamides) as anticancer agents.

Methods

Target proteins were selected by analysis of protein-protein and drug-protein interactions. Molecular modelling was done by molecular docking and molecular dynamic simulation. Predictive analysis of the ADMET profile of gallic acid and its derivatives (N-alkyl gallamide) was conducted using Marvin Sketch, Swissadme, protox II, and pkCSM pharmacokinetics. The selected target proteins were JUN, AKT1, CASP3, and CASP7.

Results

Compounds N-octyl gallamide, N-ters-butyl gallamide, and N-isoamil gallamide were the three best gallic acid derivatives based on molecular modelling analysis of target proteins associated with breast cancer. The ADMET profile of the N-alkyl gallamide compound is predictable and shows a good profile as a candidate for anticancer drugs.

Conclusion

N-octyl gallamide, N-ters-butyl gallamide, and N-isoamil gallamide have potential as anti-breast cancer agents.

Antimicrobial peptides grafted onto the surface of N-acetylcysteine-chitosan nanoparticles can revitalize drugs against clinical isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) and is the leading cause of death from infectious diseases in the World. The search for new antituberculosis drugs is a high priority, since several drug-resistant TB-strains have emerged. Many nanotechnology strategies are being explored to repurpose or revive drugs. An interesting approach is to graft antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) to antibiotic-loaded nanoparticles. The objective of the present work was to determine the anti-MTB activity of rifampicin-loaded N-acetylcysteine-chitosan-based nanoparticles (NPs), conjugated with the AMP Ctx(Ile21)-Ha; against clinical isolates (multi- and extensively-drug resistant) and the H37Rv strain. The modified chitosan and drug-loaded NPs were characterized with respect to their physicochemical stability and their antimycobacterial profile, which showed potent inhibition (MIC values <0.977 μg/mL) by the latter. Furthermore, their accumulation within macrophages and cytotoxicity were determined. To understand the possible mechanisms of action, an in silico study of the peptide against MTB membrane receptors was performed. The results presented herein demonstrate that antibiotic-loaded NPs grafted with an AMP can be a powerful tool for revitalizing drugs against multidrug-resistant M. tuberculosis strains, by launching multiple attacks against MTB. This approach could potentially serve as a novel treatment strategy for various long-term diseases requiring extended treatment periods.

Activity of Bacteriophage D29 Loaded on Nanoliposomes against Macrophages Infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis

The search for new antimicrobial agents is a continuous struggle, mainly because more and more cases of resistant strains are being reported. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) is the main microorganism responsible for millions of deaths worldwide. The development of new antimicrobial agents is generally aimed at finding strong interactions with one or more bacterial receptors. It has been proven that bacteriophages have the ability to adhere to specific and selective regions. However, their transport and administration must be carefully evaluated as an excess could prevent a positive response and the bacteriophages may be eliminated during their journey. With this in mind, the mycobacteriophage D29 was encapsulated in nanoliposomes, which made it possible to determine its antimicrobial activity during transport and its stability in the treatment of active and latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The antimicrobial activity, the cytotoxicity in macrophages and fibroblasts, as well as their infection and time-kill were evaluated. Phage nanoencapsulation showed efficient cell internalization to induce MTB clearance with values greater than 90%. Therefore, it was shown that nanotechnology is capable of assisting in the activity of degradation-sensitive compounds to achieve better therapy and evade the immune response against phages during treatment.

From polyphenol to o-quinone: Occurrence, significance, and intervention strategies in foods and health implications

Polyphenol oxidation is a chemical process impairing food freshness and other desirable qualities, which has become a serious problem in fruit and vegetable processing industry. It is crucial to understand the mechanisms involved in these detrimental alterations. o-Quinones are primarily generated by polyphenols with di/tri-phenolic groups through enzymatic oxidation and/or auto-oxidation. They are highly reactive species, which not only readily suffer the attack by nucleophiles but also powerfully oxidize other molecules presenting lower redox potentials via electron transfer reactions. These reactions and subsequent complicated reactions are capable of initiating quality losses in foods, such as browning, aroma loss, and nutritional decline. To attenuate these adverse influences, a variety of technologies have emerged to restrain polyphenol oxidation via governing different factors, especially polyphenol oxidases and oxygen. Despite tremendous efforts devoted, to date, the loss of food quality caused by quinones has remained a great challenge in the food processing industry. Furthermore, o-quinones are responsible for the chemopreventive effects and/or toxicity of the parent catechols on human health, the mechanisms by which are quite complex. Herein, this review focuses on the generation and reactivity of o-quinones, attempting to clarify mechanisms involved in the quality deterioration of foods and health implications for humans. Potential innovative inhibitors and technologies are also presented to intervene in o-quinone formation and subsequent reactions. In future, the feasibility of these inhibitory strategies should be evaluated, and further exploration on biological targets of o-quinones is of great necessity.

Polyphenols as Potent Epigenetics Agents for Cancer

Human diseases such as cancer can be caused by aberrant epigenetic regulation. Polyphenols play a major role in mammalian epigenome regulation through mechanisms and proteins that remodel chromatin. In fruits, seeds, and vegetables, as well as food supplements, polyphenols are found. Compounds such as these ones are powerful anticancer agents and antioxidants. Gallic acid, kaempferol, curcumin, quercetin, and resveratrol, among others, have potent anti-tumor effects by helping reverse epigenetic changes associated with oncogene activation and tumor suppressor gene inactivation. The role dietary polyphenols plays in restoring epigenetic alterations in cancer cells with a particular focus on DNA methylation and histone modifications was summarized. We also discussed how these natural compounds modulate gene expression at the epigenetic level and described their molecular targets in cancer. It highlights the potential of polyphenols as an alternative therapeutic approach in cancer since they modulate epigenetic activity.

Pistacia lentiscus L. fruits showed promising antimutagenic and antigenotoxic activity using both in-vitro and in-vivo test systems

Pistacia lentiscus L. is one of the most popular medicinal plants attributed to its beneficial properties on human health. However, few toxicogenetic studies have been carried out. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the potential genotoxic/antigenotoxic and mutagenic/antimutagenic properties of oil, ethyl acetate and ethanolic extracts of P. lentiscus L. fruits using in vitro the Ames and Umu assays, as well as in vivo micronucleus (MN) test. Extracts did not exert any significant mutagenic/genotoxic effects but provided protection against standard mutagenic and genotoxic agents including 2 nitrofluorene (2-NF) at 2.5 and 5 µg/ml; sodium azide at 5 and 10 µg/ml; 3-methylcholanthrene (3-MC) at 25 and 50 μg/ml; cyclophosphamide (CP) at 50 and 100 μg/ml; 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide (4-NQO) at 0.05 µg/ml and 2-amino-anthracene (AA) at 0.2 µg/ml. Further, cytotoxicity and selectivity were examined on human hepatocarcinoma (HepG2), and MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines as well as a human normal-like fibroblast cell line (TelCOFS02MA) using MTT assay. Among all extracts, PF1 (ethanolic) showed the most significant selectivity index (SI) (HepG2:11.98; MCF7:4.83), which led to further investigations using an animal model. Oral administration of PF1 (125-1000 mg/kg b.w.) significantly decreased the number of micronucleated cells in CP -initiated (50 mg/kg b.w.) mice, while the number of micronucleated reticulocytes (MNRET), micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (MNPCE) or mitotic index (MI) were not markedly affected. Further, PF1 significantly enhanced catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities in the livers and kidneys of these animals. The obtained results indicated the beneficial properties of P. lentiscus L. fruits for use in therapy against harmful effects of genotoxic and mutagenic agents. However, while promising it should be noted that the obtained results are preliminary and need to be confirmed prior to therapeutic use.

Tapping into the antitubercular potential of 2,5-dimethylpyrroles: A structure-activity relationship interrogation

An exploration of the chemical space around a 2,5-dimethylpyrrole scaffold of antitubercular hit compound 1 has led to the identification of new derivatives active against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and multidrug-resistant clinical isolates. Analogues incorporating a cyclohexanemethyl group on the methyleneamine side chain at C3 of the pyrrole core, including 5n and 5q, exhibited potent inhibitory effects against the M. tuberculosis strains, substantiating the essentiality of the moiety to their antimycobacterial activity. In addition, selected derivatives showed promising cytotoxicity profiles against human pulmonary fibroblasts and/or murine macrophages, proved to be effective in inhibiting the growth of intracellular mycobacteria, and elicited either bactericidal effects, or bacteriostatic activity comparable to 1. Computational studies revealed that the new compounds bind to the putative target, MmpL3, in a manner similar to that of known inhibitors BM212 and SQ109.

Micronucleus assays with the human derived liver cell line (Huh6): A promising approach to reduce the use of laboratory animals in genetic toxicology

The inadequate representation of enzymes which catalyze the activation/detoxification of xenobiotics in cells that are currently used in genotoxicity testing of chemicals leads to a high number of false positive results and the number of follow up studies with rodents could be reduced by use of more reliable in vitro models. We found earlier that several xenobiotic drug metabolizing enzymes are represented in the human derived liver cell line Huh6 and developed a protocol for micronucleus (MN) experiments which is in agreement with the current OECD guideline. This protocol was used to test 23 genotoxic and non-genotoxic reference chemicals; based on these results and of earlier findings (with 9 chemicals) we calculated the predictive value of the assay for the detection of genotoxic carcinogens. We found a sensitivity of 80% and a specificity of 94% for a total number of 32 chemicals; comparisons with results obtained with other in vitro assays show that the validity of MN tests with Huh6 is higher as that of other experimental models. These results are promising and indicate that the use of Huh6 cells in genetic toxicology may contribute to the reduction of the use of laboratory rodents; further experimental work to confirm this assumption is warranted.

Growth-inhibitory effects of tris-(1,10-phenanthroline) iron (II) against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in vitro and in vivo

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the major etiological agent for tuberculosis (TB), which is the leading cause of single pathogen infection-related deaths worldwide. The End TB Strategy of the World Health Organization aimed to decrease the incidence of TB by 20% between 2015 and 2020, which was not achieved. Here, the growth-inhibitory effects of tris-(1,10-phenanthroline) iron (II) complex ([Fe(phen)3]2+), a known commercially available cheap chemical substance, were examined. The best in vitro results showed great activity with MIC ranging from 0.77 to 3.06 μM against clinical strains and at low pH (mimicking the granuloma) with MIC of 0.21 μM. Preliminary safety analysis revealed that the complex did not exhibit cytotoxic activity against different cell lines or mutagenic activity in vitro. The complex was orally bioavailable after 2 h of administration in vivo. Additionally, the results of the acute toxicity test revealed that the complex did not exert toxic effects in female BALB/c mice. The mechanism of action was performed using D29 mycobacteriophages where the treatment with different concentrations of the complex inhibited viral protein synthesis, which indicated that the anti-TB mechanisms of the complex involve protein synthesis inhibition. These findings suggested that [Fe(phen)3]2+ is a potential novel therapeutic for TB.

Benzenetriol-Derived Compounds against Citrus Canker

In order to replace the huge amounts of copper salts used in citrus orchards, alternatives have been sought in the form of organic compounds of natural origin with activity against the causative agent of citrus canker, the phytopathogen Xanthomonas citri subsp. Citri. We synthesized a series of 4-alkoxy-1,2-benzene diols (alkyl-BDOs) using 1,2,4-benzenetriol (BTO) as a starting material through a three-step synthesis route and evaluated their suitability as antibacterial compounds. Our results show that alkyl ethers derived from 1,2,4-benzenetriol have bactericidal activity against X. citri, disrupting the bacterial cell membrane within 15 min. Alkyl-BDOs were also shown to remain active against the bacteria while in solution, and presented low toxicity to (human) MRC-5 cells. Therefore, we have demonstrated that 1,2,4-benzenetriol—a molecule that can be obtained from agricultural residues—is an adequate precursor for the synthesis of new compounds with activity against X. citri.

Genotoxicity and mutagenicity assessment of a standardized extract (P2Et) obtained from Caesalpinia spinosa

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The P2Et extract was assessed for genotoxicity and mutagenicity activity.

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The P2Et extract showed no genotoxicity in Micronucleus assay.

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The P2Et extract showed no mutagenicity in Ames test.

The standardized P2Et extract obtained from Caesalpinia spinosa has shown antioxidant, and direct antitumor activity, but also activation of specific immune response through the induction of tumor immunogenic cell death in breast and melanoma cancer models. The present work evaluated the mutagenicity and genotoxicity profile of P2Et to continue the development of the P2Et. Genotoxicity was evaluated by OECD 1997 a guideline and mutagenicity by OECD 2016. At P2Et’s doses of 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg body weight in mice (Mus musculus), the difference between the number of micronuclei in PCE of the groups were not statistically significant (17 (negative control), 15 (500 mg/kg), 15 (1000 mg/kg), 19 (2000 mg/kg) and 271 (positive control). Similarly, P2Et did not induce gene mutations by base pair changes or frameshifts in the genome of Salmonella Typhimurium strains TA98, TA100, TA102, TA1535 and TA1537 at the tested range of concentrations up to 5000 μg/plate in the absence and presence of metabolic activation. Therefore, the P2Et was considered as non- mutagenic and non-genotoxic at the conditions of the tests.

Antibacterial activity of a new monocarbonyl analog of curcumin MAC 4 is associated with divisome disruption

Curcumin (CUR) is a symmetrical dicarbonyl compound with antibacterial activity. On the other hand, pharmacokinetic and chemical stability limitations hinder its therapeutic application. Monocarbonyl analogs of curcumin (MACs) have been shown to overcome these barriers. We synthesized and investigated the antibacterial activity of a series of unsymmetrical MACs derived from acetone against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Gram-negative and Gram-positive species. Phenolic MACs 4, 6 and 8 showed a broad spectrum and potent activity, mainly against M. tuberculosis, Acinetobacter baumannii and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), with MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration) values ranging from 0.9 to 15.6 µg/mL. The investigation regarding toxicity on human lung cells (MRC-5 and A549 lines) revealed MAC 4 was more selective than MACs 6 and 8, with SI (selectivity index) values ranging from 5.4 to 15.6. In addition, MAC 4 did not demonstrate genotoxic effects on A549 cells and it was more stable than CUR in phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) for 24 h at 37 °C. Fluorescence and phase contrast microscopies indicated that MAC 4 has the ability to disrupt the divisome of Bacillus subtilis without damaging its cytoplasmic membrane. However, biochemical investigations demonstrated that MAC 4 did not affect the GTPase activity of B. subtilis FtsZ, which is the main constituent of the bacterial divisome. These results corroborated that MAC 4 is a promising antitubercular and antibacterial agent.

Hexyl gallate for the control of citrus canker caused by Xanthomonas citri subsp citri

Brazil is the biggest producer of sweet oranges and the main exporter of concentrated orange juice in the world. Among the diseases that affect citriculture, Asiatic citrus canker, caused by the bacterial pathogen Xanthomonas citri, represents one of the most significant threats. The current Brazilian legislation regulating the control of citrus canker no longer requires the eradication of affected trees in states where the incidence of the disease is high. Instead, control involves disease control measures, including periodic preventative spraying of copper compounds. The long-term use of copper for plant disease control has raised concerns about environmental accumulation and toxicity, as well as the selective pressure it exerts leading to the emergence of copper-resistant X. citri strains. Here, we evaluated hexyl gallate (G6) as an alternative to copper compounds for citrus plant protection. G6 was able to protect citrus nursery trees against X. citri infection. Thirty days after inoculation, the trees treated with G6 developed 0.5 lesions/cm² leaf area compared with the 2.84 lesions/cm² observed in the untreated control trees. Also, G6 did not interfere with germination and root development of tomato, lettuce, and arugula, which is consistent with our previous data showing that G6 is safe for tissue culture cell lines. Membrane permeability tests showed that the primary target of G6 is the bacterial outer membrane. Finally, we could not isolate spontaneous X. citri mutants resistant to G6 nor induce resistance to G6 after long-term exposures to increasing concentrations of the compound, which suggests that G6 may have multiple cellular targets. This study demonstrated that G6 is a promising candidate for the development and use in citrus canker management.

Traditional Tibetan Medicine in Cancer Therapy by Targeting Apoptosis Pathways

Cancer is a leading cause of death around the world. Apoptosis, one of the pathways of programmed cell death, is a promising target for cancer therapy. Traditional Tibetan medicine (TTM) has been used by Tibetan people for thousands of years, and many TTMs have been proven to be effective in the treatment of cancer. This paper summarized the medicinal plants with anticancer activity in the Tibetan traditional system of medicine by searching for Tibetan medicine monographs and drug standards and reviewing modern research literatures. Forty species were found to be effective in treating cancer. More importantly, some TTMs (e.g., Ophiocordyceps sinensis, Phyllanthus emblica L. and Rhodiola kirilowii (Regel) Maxim.) and their active ingredients (e.g., cordycepin, salidroside, and gallic acid) have been reported to possess anticancer activity by targeting some apoptosis pathways in cancer, such as Bcl-2/Bax, caspases, PI3K/Akt, JAK2/STAT3, MAPK, and AMPK. These herbs and natural compounds would be potential drug candidates for the treatment of cancer.

New Perspectives on the Efficacy of Gallic Acid in Cosmetics & Nanocosmeceuticals

BACKGROUND

Gallic acid (GA-3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid), a phenolic phytochemical, is a ubiquitous secondary metabolite found in most plants, with appreciable concentrations in grapes seed, rose flowers, sumac, oak and witch hazel. GA often results from the hydrolysis of terpenes and the polyphenol tannic acid.

APPLICATIONS

It exhibits powerful antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anti-cancer activities. Most intriguing benefit has been reported to be on the skin. Due to these beneficial properties, GA and its derivatives (e.g. lipid-soluble phenols such as synthetic gallic esters aka gallates) have been extensively used as an adjuvant in a number of therapeutic formulations, as a substitute of hydrocortisone in children with atopic dermatitis (AD) and other skin conditions (hyperpigmentation, wound healing), and as a cosmetic ingredient. GA has a USFDA GRAS status (generally recognized as safe), exhibiting fairly low systemic toxicity and associated mortality at acute doses in many experimental models. Despite anti-skin aging benefits obtained with relatively safe GA formulations, few cases of gallate-induced skin allergic have been reported in humans. Therefore, approaches to improve the bioavailability and biodegradability of this poor-water soluble and non-biodegradable phenolic compound are warranted.

PURPOSE

This review has focused on the recently reported biological activities pertaining to the skin as well as the pharmacological properties of GA and its derivatives with special emphasis on its use in (nano-) cosmetic formulations. Since this is an evolving area of research, an adequate emphasis has been placed upon advantages and disadvantages of various nanoformulations.

Antibacterial activity of 3,3'-dihydroxycurcumin (DHC) is associated with membrane perturbation

Curcumin is a plant diphenylheptanoid and has been investigated for its antibacterial activity. However, the therapeutic uses of this compound are limited due to its chemical instability. In this work, we evaluated the antimicrobial activity of diphenylheptanoids derived from curcumin against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and also against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in terms of MIC (Minimum Inhibitory Concentration) and MBC (Minimum Bactericidal Concentration) values. 3,3'-Dihydroxycurcumin (DHC) displayed activity against Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus and M. tuberculosis, demonstrating MIC values of 78 and 156 µg/mL. In addition, DHC was more stable than curcumin in acetate buffer (pH 5.0) and phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) for 24 h at 37 °C. We proposed that membrane and the cell division protein FtsZ could be the targets for DHC due to that fact that curcumin exhibits this mode of antibacterial action. Fluorescence microscopy of Bacillus subtilis stained with SYTO9 and propidium iodide fluorophores indicated that DHC has the ability to perturb the bacterial membrane. On the other hand, DHC showed a weak inhibition of the GTPase activity of B. subtilis FtsZ. Toxicity assay using human cells indicated that DHC has moderate capacity to reduce viability of liver cells (HepG2 line) and lung cells (MRC-5 and A549 lines) when compared with doxorubicin. Alkaline comet assay indicated that DHC was not able to induce DNA damage in A549 cell line. These results indicated that DHC is promising compound with antibacterial and antitubercular activities.

Purification and characterization of FtsZ from the citrus canker pathogen Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri

Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xac) is the causative agent of citrus canker, a plant disease that significantly impacts citriculture. In earlier work, we showed that alkylated derivatives of gallic acid have antibacterial action against Xac and target both the cell division protein FtsZ and membrane integrity in Bacillus subtilis. Here, we have purified native XacFtsZ and characterized its GTP hydrolysis and polymerization properties. In a surprising manner, inhibition of XacFtsZ activity by alkyl gallates is not as strong as observed earlier with B. subtilis FtsZ. As the alkyl gallates efficiently permeabilize Xac membranes, we propose that this is the primary mode of antibacterial action of these compounds.

Targeting Antioxidants to Interfaces: Control of the Oxidative Stability of Lipid-Based Emulsions

The oxidation of lipid-based emulsions and nanoemulsions strongly affects their overall quality and safety. Moreover, introduction of oxidatively unstable emulsions into biological systems either as an energy source in parenteral nutrition or as delivery systems of bioactives may promote oxidation "in situ" leading to the overproduction of reactive oxygen species, initiating new harmful oxidative reactions and increasing the oxidative damage. Addition of antioxidants, AOs, may help to prevent the oxidative degradation of unsaturated lipids. Nevertheless, prediction of the optimal antioxidant or set of antioxidants and their efficiency is still far from being completely understood because the site of reaction is often uncertain and because the effective concentrations of reactants in the different regions of the emulsion have been frequently overlooked. Furthermore, the absence of quantitative relationships between the hydrophobicity of the antioxidants and their partitioning among the oil, water, and interfacial regions hampers their optimal use. Here we investigated the effects of gallic acid and some of its alkyl derivatives on the oxidative stability of soybean oil-in-water emulsions and determined their effective concentrations in the different regions of the emulsion (aqueous, oil, and interface). The results provide physical evidence for the crucial role played by the interfacial region in the reaction between antioxidants and lipid radicals: a direct relationship between interfacial concentrations and the oxidative stability could be established. The results indicate that AOs accumulate in the interfacial region, where the effective concentration is 20-180 times higher than the stoichiometric concentrations. Control of the hydrophobicity of the AOs and of the surfactant concentration allows control of interfacial concentrations: the lower the concentration of surfactant employed, the higher the effective interfacial concentration.

New heterobimetallic ferrocenyl derivatives: Evaluation of their potential as prospective agents against trypanosomatid parasites and Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Searching for prospective agents against infectious diseases, four new ferrocenyl derivatives, [M(L)(dppf)4](PF₆), with M = Pd(II) or Pt(II), dppf = 1,1'-bis(dipheny1phosphino) ferrocene and HL = tropolone (HTrop) or hinokitiol (HHino), were synthesized and characterized. Complexes and ligands were evaluated against the bloodstream form of T. brucei, L. infantum amastigotes, M. tuberculosis (MTB) sensitive strain and MTB clinical isolates. Complexes showed a significant increase of the anti-T. brucei activity with respect to the free ligands (>28- and >46-fold for Trop and 6- and 22-fold for Hino coordinated to Pt-dppf and Pd-dppf, respectively), yielding IC₅₀ values < 5 μM. The complexes proved to be more potent than the antitrypanosomal drug Nifurtimox. The new ferrocenyl derivatives were more selective towards the parasite than the free ligands. The Pt compounds were less toxic on J774 murine macrophages (mammalian cell model), than the Pd ones, showing selectivity index values (SI = IC₅₀ murine macrophage/IC₅₀T. brucei) up to 23. Generation of the {M-dppf} compounds lead to a slightly positive impact on the anti-leishmanial potency. Although the ferrocenyl derivatives were more active on sensitive MTB than the free ligands (MIC₉₀ = 9.88-14.73 μM), they showed low selectivity towards the pathogen. Related to the mechanism of action, the antiparasitic effect cannot be ascribed to an interference of the compounds with the thiol-redox homeostasis of the pathogen. Fluorescence measurements pointed at DNA as a probable target of the new compounds. [Pt(Trop)(dppf)](PF₆) and [Pt(Hino)(dppf)](PF₆) could be considered prospective anti-T. brucei agents that deserve further research.

Antibacterial activity of monoacetylated alkyl gallates against Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri

Asiatic citrus canker (ACC) is an incurable disease of citrus plants caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (X. citri). It affects all the commercially important citrus varieties in the major orange producing areas around the world. Control of the pathogen requires recurrent sprays of copper formulations that accumulate in soil and water reservoirs. Here, we describe the improvement of the alkyl gallates, which are potent anti-X. citri compounds, intended to be used as alternatives to copper in the control of ACC. Acetylation of alkyl gallates increased their lipophilicity, which resulted in potentiation of the antibacterial activity. X. citri exposed to the acetylated compounds exhibited increased cell length that is consistent with the disruption of the cell division apparatus. Finally, we show that inhibition of cell division is an indirect effect that seemed to be caused by membrane permeabilization, which is apparently the primary target of the acetylated alkyl gallates.

Evaluation of genotoxicity and subchronic toxicity of the standardized leaves infusion extract of Copaifera malmei Harms in experimental models

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Copaifera malmei Harms (Fabaceae), known mainly as óleo-mirim, is a native and endemic plant found in the states of Mato Grosso and Goiás of Brazil. The plant's leaves infusion is popularly used by riverine communities of the northern Araguaia microregion, Mato Grosso, Brazil, for the treatment of gastric ulcers and inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract. The gastric antiulcer activity of the standardized leaves infusion extract of Copaifera malmei (SIECm) in rodents has been reported. The objective of this study was to advance the investigation of the safety profile of SIECm by evaluating the genotoxicity and subchronic toxicity using in vitro and in vivo experimental models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

SIECm was prepared by infusion, by incubating the powdered dried leaves material in boiled water for 15min. In vitro genotoxicity of SIECm (10, 30 or 100μg/mL) was assessed by micronucleus and comet tests using Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-k1) epithelial cells. The evaluation of subchronic toxicity profile was performed by daily oral administration of SIECm (100, 400 or 1000mg/kg) to Wistar rats for 30 days. Clinical observations of toxicological related parameters were done every 6 days. After the treatment period, blood was collected for hematological and biochemical analysis, and some organs were removed for macroscopic and histopathological analysis.

RESULTS

In the micronucleus assay, SIECm demonstrated anti-mutagenic activity. In the comet assay, SIECm presented anti-genotoxic effect preventing DNA damage at all the three concentrations tested with pre-treatment, while the same effect was only observed in the co-treatment at the lowest concentration. Post-treatment with SIECm increased the genetic damage induced by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) at the highest concentration. In the subchronic toxicity test, few changes were observed, such as increase in feed consumption in the group of animals treated with 100mg/kg of the SIECm, which reversed after 6 days. There were no macroscopic, histological and relative weights changes in the organs of animals treated with SIECm. No toxicologically relevant changes were observed in the hematological analysis. Subchronic administration of SIECm reduced levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) in animals treated with 100mg/kg and serum triglyceride levels at 400 and 1000mg/kg. However, the hematological and biochemical changes observed are within the physiological ranges for this animal species.

CONCLUSION

The results demonstrate that SIECm is not genotoxic, and does not present toxicity when used orally for up to 30 days. In addition, it showed protection to the genetic damage induced by H₂O_2. The SIECm therefore has a high safety margin for therapeutic use.

Antibacterial and Antitubercular Activities of Cinnamylideneacetophenones

Cinnamaldehyde is a natural product with broad spectrum of antibacterial activity. In this work, it was used as a template for design and synthesis of a series of 17 cinnamylideneacetophenones. Phenolic compounds 3 and 4 exhibited MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration) and MBC (minimum bactericidal concentration) values of 77.9 to 312 µM against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus mutans, and Streptococcus sanguinis. Compounds 2, 7, 10, and 18 presented potent effects against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (57.2 µM ≤ MIC ≤ 70.9 µM). Hydrophilic effects caused by substituents on ring B increased antibacterial activity against Gram-positive species. Thus, log P_o/w were calculated by using high-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array detection (HPLC-PDA) analyses, and cinnamylideneacetophenones presented values ranging from 2.5 to 4.1. In addition, the effects of 3 and 4 were evaluated on pulmonary cells, indicating their moderate toxicity (46.3 µM ≤ IC₅₀ ≤ 96.7 µM) when compared with doxorubicin. Bioactive compounds were subjected to in silico prediction of pharmacokinetic properties, and did not violate Lipinski's and Veber's rules, corroborating their potential bioavailability by an oral route.