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Arce-López B, Coton M, Coton E, Hymery N. Occurrence of the two major regulated mycotoxins, ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1, in cereal and cereal-based products in Europe and toxicological effects: A review. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2024; 109:104489. [PMID: 38844151 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2024.104489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
Among cereal contaminants, mycotoxins are of concern due to their importance in terms of food and feed safety. The difficulty in establishing a diagnosis for mycotoxicosis relies on the fact that the effects are most often subclinical for chronic exposure and the most common scenario is multi-contamination by various toxins. Mycotoxin co-occurrence is a major food safety concern as additive or even synergic toxic impacts may occur, but also regarding current regulations as they mainly concern individual mycotoxin levels in specific foods and feed in the food chain. However, due to the large number of possible mycotoxin combinations, there is still limited knowledge on co-exposure toxicity data, which depends on several parameters. In this context, this systematic review aims to provide an overview of the toxic effects of two regulated mycotoxins, namely ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1. This review focused on the 2012-2022 period and analysed the occurrence in Europe of the selected mycotoxins in different food matrices (cereals and cereal-derived products), and their toxic impact, alone or in combination, on in vitro intestinal and hepatic human cells. To better understand and evaluate the associated risks, further research is needed using new approach methodologies (NAM), such as in vitro 3D models. KEY CONTRIBUTION: Cereals and their derived products are the most important food source for humans and feed for animals worldwide. This manuscript is a state of the art review of the literature over the last ten years on ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1 mycotoxins in these products in Europe as well as their toxicological effects, alone and in combination, on human cells. Future perspectives and some challenges regarding the assessment of toxicological effects of mycotoxins are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Arce-López
- Univ. Brest, INRAE, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, Plouzané F-29280, France
| | - Monika Coton
- Univ. Brest, INRAE, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, Plouzané F-29280, France
| | - Emmanuel Coton
- Univ. Brest, INRAE, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, Plouzané F-29280, France
| | - Nolwenn Hymery
- Univ. Brest, INRAE, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, Plouzané F-29280, France.
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A Bacillus-based biofungicide agent prevents ochratoxins occurrence in grapes and impacts the volatile profile throughout the Chardonnay winemaking stages. Int J Food Microbiol 2023; 389:110107. [PMID: 36731201 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2023.110107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Bacillus-based biocontrol agents have emerged as a strategy to eliminate or reduce the use of synthetic fungicides that are detrimental to health and the environment. In vineyards, a special concern arises from the control of Aspergillus carbonarius, a fungus known for its potential to produce ochratoxins. Ochratoxin A (OTA) is the most toxic form among ochratoxins and its maximum limit in wine has been established in Europe and Brazil as 2 μg/kg. Wine quality, especially the volatile profile, may be influenced by the antifungal strategies, since fungicide residues are transferred from grapes to must during winemaking. The objective of this study was to evaluate, for the first time, the impact of a biocontrol strategy containing Bacillus velezensis P1 on the volatile profile and occurrence of ochratoxins when grapes infected with A. carbonarius were used in winemaking. The evaluation of ochratoxins was carried out by liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QToF-MS), and volatile compounds were analyzed using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC × GC/qMS). Six ochratoxins were identified in must prepared with Chardonnay grapes inoculated with A. carbonarius (ochratoxin α, ochratoxin β, ochratoxin α methyl-ester, ochratoxin α amide, N-formyl-ochratoxin α amide and OTA). Although winemaking causes a decrease in the levels of all forms of ochratoxins, the co-occurrence of these mycotoxins was verified in wine made with grapes containing A. carbonarius. B. velezensis P1 prevented the occurrence of ochratoxins in must, ensuring the safety of wines. Regarding the volatile profile, a predominant presence of terpenic compounds was verified in samples treated with B. velezensis when compared with those not treated with the biocontrol strategy, whereas the presence of A. carbonarius resulted in a higher concentration of volatile compounds with an odor described as fatty/waxy, possibly compromising wine quality. Therefore, B. velezensis P1 is a new biofungicide possibility to produce ochratoxin-free grapes and high-quality wines.
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Li J, Zhou Y, Zhang J, Cui L, Lu H, Zhu Y, Zhao Y, Fan S, Xiao X. Barley β-glucan inhibits digestion of soybean oil in vitro and lipid-lowering effects of digested products in cell co-culture model. Food Res Int 2023; 164:112378. [PMID: 36737963 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.112378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The effect of barley β-glucan on soybean oil digestion characteristics before and after fermentation was studied in an in vitro-simulated gastrointestinal digestion model. The addition of barley β-glucan made the system more unstable, the particle size increased significantly, and confocal laser imaging showed that it was easier to form agglomerates. The addition of barley β-glucan increased the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in digestion products, and reduced digestibility of soybean oil. In a co-culture model of Caco-2/HT29 and HepG2 cells, the effects of digestive products of soybean oil and barley β-glucan before and after fermentation on lipid metabolism in HepG2 cells were investigated. The results showed that adding only soybean oil digestion products significantly increased triglycerides (TG) content and lipid accumulation in basolateral HepG2 cells. When fermented barley β-glucan was added, lipid deposition was significantly decreased, and the lipid-lowering activity was better than that of unfermented barley β-glucan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaying Li
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Yurong Zhou
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Jiayan Zhang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Ling Cui
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Haina Lu
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Ying Zhu
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Yansheng Zhao
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Songtao Fan
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Xiang Xiao
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China.
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Silveira RD, Veras FF, Bach E, Manfroi V, Brandelli A, Welke JE. Aspergillus carbonarius-derived ochratoxins are inhibited by Amazonian Bacillus spp. used as a biocontrol agent in grapes. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 39:158-169. [PMID: 34702135 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.1982151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Bacillus spp. have been used as a biocontrol strategy to eliminate/reduce toxic fungicides in viticulture. Furthermore, the presence of fungi that are resistant to commonly used products is frequent, highlighting the need for new biocontrol strains. Aspergillus carbonarius can produce ochratoxins, including ochratoxin A (OTA), which has a regulatory maximum allowable limit for grape products. The purpose of this study was to assess the ability of four Amazonian strains of Bacillus (P1, P7, P11, and P45) to biocontrol A. carbonarius and various forms of ochratoxins in grapes. Berries treated with strain P1 presented no fungal colonies (100% reduction), while P7, P11 and P45 strains caused a reduction of 95, 95 and 61% on fungal counts, respectively. Six forms of ochratoxin were found in the grapes inoculated with A. carbonarius, including ochratoxin α, ochratoxin β, ochratoxin α methyl-ester, ochratoxin α amide, N-formyl-ochratoxin α amide, and OTA. Four of these ochratoxin forms (ochratoxin β, ochratoxin α methyl-ester, ochratoxin α amide, N-formyl-ochratoxin α amide) are reported for the first time in grapes. These ochratoxins were identified using liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QToF-MS). All Bacillus strains inhibited the synthesis of OTA, which is the most toxic form of ochratoxin. No ochratoxin form was found when P1 and P7 were used. Although some forms of ochratoxin were detected in grapes treated with Bacillus spp. P11 and P45, the levels decreased by 97%. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the inhibition of Aspergillus carbonarius-derived ochratoxin by Bacillus species. P1 strain, identified as Bacillus velezensis, was found to be the most promising for completely inhibiting fungal growth and production of all ochratoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafaela Diogo Silveira
- Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos (ICTA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Flávio Fonseca Veras
- Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos (ICTA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Evelise Bach
- Instituto de Biociências, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Vitor Manfroi
- Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos (ICTA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Adriano Brandelli
- Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos (ICTA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Juliane Elisa Welke
- Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos (ICTA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
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Ede JD, Ong KJ, Mulenos MR, Pradhan S, Gibb M, Sayes CM, Shatkin JA. Physical, chemical, and toxicological characterization of sulfated cellulose nanocrystals for food-related applications using in vivo and in vitro strategies. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2021; 9:808-822. [PMID: 33447365 DOI: 10.1093/toxres/tfaa082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are a next-generation cellulose product with many unique properties including applications in the food industry as a food additive, food coating, and in food-contact packaging material. While CNC is anticipated to be safe due to its similarity to the many forms of cellulose currently used as food additives, special consideration is given to it as it is the first manufactured form of cellulose that is nanoscale in both length and width. A proactive approach to safety has been adopted by manufacturers to demonstrate CNC safety toward responsible commercialization. As part of the safety demonstration, in vivo and in vitro testing strategies were commissioned side-by-side with conventional cellulose, which has been safely used in food for decades. Testing included a 90-day rodent feeding study as well as additional physical, chemical, and biological studies in vitro that follow European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) guidance to demonstrate the safe use of novel food ingredients. The strategy includes assessment of neat materials side-by-side with simulated digestion, mimicking conditions that occur along the gastrointestinal tract as well as intracellularly. An intestinal co-culture model examined any potential toxicological effects from exposure to either pristine or digested forms of CNC including cytotoxicity, metabolic activity, membrane permeability, oxidative stress, and proinflammatory responses. None of the studies demonstrated any toxicity via oral or simulated oral exposure. These studies demonstrate that CNC produced by InnoTech Alberta is similarly safe by ingestion as conventional cellulose with a no-observed-adverse-effect level of 2085.3 (males) and 2682.8 (females) mg/kg/day.
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Affiliation(s)
- James D Ede
- Vireo Advisors LLC, Boston, MA 02130-4323, USA
| | | | - Marina R Mulenos
- Institute of Biomedical Studies, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97266, Waco, TX 76798-7266, USA
| | - Sahar Pradhan
- Institute of Biomedical Studies, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97266, Waco, TX 76798-7266, USA
| | - Matthew Gibb
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97266, Waco, TX 76798-7266, USA
| | - Christie M Sayes
- Institute of Biomedical Studies, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97266, Waco, TX 76798-7266, USA
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Tran VN, Viktorová J, Ruml T. Mycotoxins: Biotransformation and Bioavailability Assessment Using Caco-2 Cell Monolayer. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E628. [PMID: 33008111 PMCID: PMC7601793 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The determination of mycotoxins content in food is not sufficient for the prediction of their potential in vivo cytotoxicity because it does not reflect their bioavailability and mutual interactions within complex matrices, which may significantly alter the toxic effects. Moreover, many mycotoxins undergo biotransformation and metabolization during the intestinal absorption process. Biotransformation is predominantly the conversion of mycotoxins meditated by cytochrome P450 and other enzymes. This should transform the toxins to nontoxic metabolites but it may possibly result in unexpectedly high toxicity. Therefore, the verification of biotransformation and bioavailability provides valuable information to correctly interpret occurrence data and biomonitoring results. Among all of the methods available, the in vitro models using monolayer formed by epithelial cells from the human colon (Caco-2 cell) have been extensively used for evaluating the permeability, bioavailability, intestinal transport, and metabolism of toxic and biologically active compounds. Here, the strengths and limitations of both in vivo and in vitro techniques used to determine bioavailability are reviewed, along with current detailed data about biotransformation of mycotoxins. Furthermore, the molecular mechanism of mycotoxin effects is also discussed regarding the disorder of intestinal barrier integrity induced by mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Tomáš Ruml
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.)
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Pradhan SH, Mulenos MR, Steele LR, Gibb M, Ede JD, Ong KJ, Shatkin JA, Sayes CM. Physical, chemical, and toxicological characterization of fibrillated forms of cellulose using an in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and co-culture model. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2020; 9:290-301. [PMID: 32670560 PMCID: PMC7329166 DOI: 10.1093/toxres/tfaa026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Fibrillated cellulose is a next-generation material in development for a variety of applications, including use in food and food-contact materials. An alternative testing strategy including simulated digestion was developed to compare the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of seven different types of fibrillated cellulose, following European Food Safety Authority guidance. Fibrillated forms were compared to a conventional form of cellulose which has been used in food for over 85 years and has Generally Recognized as safe regulatory status in the USA. The physical and chemical characterization of fibrillated celluloses demonstrate that these materials are similar physically and chemically, which composed of the same fundamental molecular structure and exhibit similar morphology, size, size distribution, surface charge, and low levels of impurities. Simulated gastrointestinal and lysosomal digestions demonstrate that these physical and chemical similarities remain following exposure to conditions that mimic the gastrointestinal tract or intracellular lysosomes. A toxicological investigation with an advanced intestinal co-culture model found that exposure to each of the fibrillated and conventional forms of cellulose, in either the pristine or digested form at 0.4% by weight, showed no adverse toxicological effects including cytotoxicity, barrier integrity, oxidative stress, or inflammation. The results demonstrate the physical, chemical, and biological similarities of these materials and provide substantive evidence to support their grouping and ability to read-across data as part of a food safety demonstration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahar H Pradhan
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97266, Waco, TX 76798-7266, USA
| | - Marina R Mulenos
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97266, Waco, TX 76798-7266, USA
| | - London R Steele
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97266, Waco, TX 76798-7266, USA
| | - Matthew Gibb
- Institute of Biomedical Studies, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97266, Waco, TX 76798-7266, USA
| | - James D Ede
- Vireo Advisors, LLC, Boston, MA, 02130-4323, USA
| | | | | | - Christie M Sayes
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97266, Waco, TX 76798-7266, USA
- Institute of Biomedical Studies, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97266, Waco, TX 76798-7266, USA
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Schrenk D, Bodin L, Chipman JK, del Mazo J, Grasl‐Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom L(R, Leblanc J, Nebbia CS, Nielsen E, Ntzani E, Petersen A, Sand S, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Wallace H, Alexander J, Dall'Asta C, Mally A, Metzler M, Binaglia M, Horváth Z, Steinkellner H, Bignami M. Risk assessment of ochratoxin A in food. EFSA J 2020; 18:e06113. [PMID: 37649524 PMCID: PMC10464718 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The European Commission asked EFSA to update their 2006 opinion on ochratoxin A (OTA) in food. OTA is produced by fungi of the genus Aspergillus and Penicillium and found as a contaminant in various foods. OTA causes kidney toxicity in different animal species and kidney tumours in rodents. OTA is genotoxic both in vitro and in vivo; however, the mechanisms of genotoxicity are unclear. Direct and indirect genotoxic and non-genotoxic modes of action might each contribute to tumour formation. Since recent studies have raised uncertainty regarding the mode of action for kidney carcinogenicity, it is inappropriate to establish a health-based guidance value (HBGV) and a margin of exposure (MOE) approach was applied. For the characterisation of non-neoplastic effects, a BMDL 10 of 4.73 μg/kg body weight (bw) per day was calculated from kidney lesions observed in pigs. For characterisation of neoplastic effects, a BMDL 10 of 14.5 μg/kg bw per day was calculated from kidney tumours seen in rats. The estimation of chronic dietary exposure resulted in mean and 95th percentile levels ranging from 0.6 to 17.8 and from 2.4 to 51.7 ng/kg bw per day, respectively. Median OTA exposures in breastfed infants ranged from 1.7 to 2.6 ng/kg bw per day, 95th percentile exposures from 5.6 to 8.5 ng/kg bw per day in average/high breast milk consuming infants, respectively. Comparison of exposures with the BMDL 10 based on the non-neoplastic endpoint resulted in MOEs of more than 200 in most consumer groups, indicating a low health concern with the exception of MOEs for high consumers in the younger age groups, indicating a possible health concern. When compared with the BMDL 10 based on the neoplastic endpoint, MOEs were lower than 10,000 for almost all exposure scenarios, including breastfed infants. This would indicate a possible health concern if genotoxicity is direct. Uncertainty in this assessment is high and risk may be overestimated.
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Lv L, Wang X. Recent Advances in Ochratoxin A Electrochemical Biosensors: Recognition Elements, Sensitization Technologies, and Their Applications. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:4769-4787. [PMID: 32243155 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c00258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a class of mycotoxin that are mainly produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium and widely found in plant origin food. OTA-contaminated foods can cause serious harm to animals and humans, while high stability of OTA makes it difficult to remove in conventional food processing. Thus, sensitive and rapid detection of OTA undoubtedly plays an important role in OTA prevention and control. In this paper, the conventional and novel methods of OTA at home and abroad are summarized and compared. The latest research progress and related applications of novel OTA electrochemical biosensors are mainly described with a new perspective. We innovatively divided the recognition element into single and combined recognition elements. Specifically, signal amplification technologies applied to the OTA electrochemical aptasensor are proposed. Furthermore, summary of the current limitations and future challenges in OTA analysis is included, which provide reference for the further research and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangrui Lv
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine and Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Xiaoying Wang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine and Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
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Tran VN, Viktorova J, Augustynkova K, Jelenova N, Dobiasova S, Rehorova K, Fenclova M, Stranska-Zachariasova M, Vitek L, Hajslova J, Ruml T. In Silico and In Vitro Studies of Mycotoxins and Their Cocktails; Their Toxicity and Its Mitigation by Silibinin Pre-Treatment. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E148. [PMID: 32121188 PMCID: PMC7150870 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12030148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins found in randomly selected commercial milk thistle dietary supplement were evaluated for their toxicity in silico and in vitro. Using in silico methods, the basic physicochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological properties of the mycotoxins were predicted using ACD/Percepta. The in vitro cytotoxicity of individual mycotoxins was determined in mouse macrophage (RAW 264.7), human hepatoblastoma (HepG2), and human embryonic kidney (HEK 293T) cells. In addition, we studied the bioavailability potential of mycotoxins and silibinin utilizing an in vitro transwell system with differentiated human colon adenocarcinoma cells (Caco-2) simulating mycotoxin transfer through the intestinal epithelial barrier. The IC50 values for individual mycotoxins in studied cells were in the biologically relevant ranges as follows: 3.57-13.37 nM (T-2 toxin), 5.07-47.44 nM (HT-2 toxin), 3.66-17.74 nM (diacetoxyscirpenol). Furthermore, no acute toxicity was obtained for deoxynivalenol, beauvericin, zearalenone, enniatinENN-A, enniatin-A1, enniatin-B, enniatin-B1, alternariol, alternariol-9-methyl ether, tentoxin, and mycophenolic acid up to the 50 nM concentration. The acute toxicity of these mycotoxins in binary combinations exhibited antagonistic effects in the combinations of T-2 with DON, ENN-A1, or ENN-B, while the rest showed synergistic or additive effects. Silibinin had a significant protective effect against both the cytotoxicity of three mycotoxins (T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, DAS) and genotoxicity of AME, AOH, DON, and ENNs on HEK 293T. The bioavailability results confirmed that AME, DAS, ENN-B, TEN, T-2, and silibinin are transported through the epithelial cell layer and further metabolized. The bioavailability of silibinin is very similar to mycotoxins poor penetration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Van Nguyen Tran
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Jitka Viktorova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Katerina Augustynkova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Nikola Jelenova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Simona Dobiasova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Katerina Rehorova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Marie Fenclova
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (M.F.); (M.S.-Z.); (J.H.)
| | - Milena Stranska-Zachariasova
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (M.F.); (M.S.-Z.); (J.H.)
| | - Libor Vitek
- First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Katerinska 32, 12108 Prague 2, Czech Republic;
- Faculty General Hospital, U Nemocnice 2, 12808 Praha 2, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Hajslova
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (M.F.); (M.S.-Z.); (J.H.)
| | - Tomas Ruml
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
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Maatouk I, Mehrez A, Amara AB, Chayma R, Abid S, Jerbi T, Landoulsi A. Effects of Gamma Irradiation on Ochratoxin A Stability and Cytotoxicity in Methanolic Solutions and Potential Application in Tunisian Millet Samples. J Food Prot 2019; 82:1433-1439. [PMID: 31339370 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-18-557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Gamma irradiation is a useful technology for degrading mycotoxins. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of irradiation on ochratoxin A (OTA) stability under different conditions. OTA was irradiated in methanolic solution and on millet flour at doses of 2 and 4 kGy. Residual OTA concentrations and possible degradation products in irradiated samples were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. The extent of in vitro cytotoxicity of OTA to HepG2 cells, with and without irradiation treatment, was assessed with an MTT assay. OTA was more sensitive to gamma radiation on Tunisian millet flour than in methanolic solutions. After irradiation of naturally contaminated millet flour, the OTA concentration was significantly reduced by 48 and 62% at a dose of 2 and 4 kGy, respectively. However, in the methanolic solution, OTA at concentrations of 1 and 5 μg mL-1 was relatively stable even at a dose of 4 kGy, with no degradation products detected in the chemical analysis. Analytical results were confirmed by cell culture assays. The remaining cytotoxicity (MTT assay) of OTA following irradiation was not significantly affected compared with the controls. These findings indicate that gamma irradiation could offer a solution for OTA decontamination in the postharvest processing chain of millet flour. However, the associated toxicological hazard of decontaminated food matrices needs more investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imed Maatouk
- 1 Research Unit Risques Iiés aux stress environmentaux: Lutte et prévention, Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, Zarzouna 7021, Tunisia
| | - Amel Mehrez
- 1 Research Unit Risques Iiés aux stress environmentaux: Lutte et prévention, Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, Zarzouna 7021, Tunisia
| | - Aya Ben Amara
- 1 Research Unit Risques Iiés aux stress environmentaux: Lutte et prévention, Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, Zarzouna 7021, Tunisia
| | - Ragoubi Chayma
- 1 Research Unit Risques Iiés aux stress environmentaux: Lutte et prévention, Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, Zarzouna 7021, Tunisia
| | - Salwa Abid
- 2 Laboratory for Research on Biologically Compatible Compounds, Faculty of Dentistry, Rue Avicenne, 5019 Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Taieb Jerbi
- 3 National Center for Nuclear Sciences and Technologies (CNSTN), Tunis cedex 2020, Tunisia
| | - Ahmed Landoulsi
- 1 Research Unit Risques Iiés aux stress environmentaux: Lutte et prévention, Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, Zarzouna 7021, Tunisia
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