Cytoprotective effect of the small GTPase RhoB expressed upon treatment of fibroblasts with the Ras-glucosylating Clostridium sordellii lethal toxin

Role of p38alpha/beta MAP Kinase in Cell Susceptibility to Clostridium sordellii Lethal Toxin and Clostridium difficile Toxin B

Lethal Toxin from Clostridium sordellii (TcsL), which is casually involved in the toxic shock syndrome and in gas gangrene, enters its target cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis. Inside the cell, TcsL mono-O-glucosylates and thereby inactivates Rac/Cdc42 and Ras subtype GTPases, resulting in actin reorganization and an activation of p38 MAP kinase. While a role of p38 MAP kinase in TcsL-induced cell death is well established, data on a role of p38 MAP kinase in TcsL-induced actin reorganization are not available. In this study, TcsL-induced Rac/Cdc42 glucosylation and actin reorganization are differentially analyzed in p38_alpha^−/− MSCV empty vector MEFs and the corresponding cell line with reconstituted p38_alpha expression (p38_alpha^−/− MSCV p38_alpha MEFs). Genetic deletion of p38_alpha results in reduced susceptibility of cells to TcsL-induced Rac/Cdc42 glucosylation and actin reorganization. Furthermore, SB203580, a pyridinyl imidazole inhibitor of p38_alpha/beta MAP kinase, also protects cells from TcsL-induced effects in both p38^−/− MSCV empty vector MEFs and in p38_alpha^−/− MSCV p38_alpha MEFs, suggesting that inhibition of p38_beta contributes to the protective effect of SB203580. In contrast, the effects of the related C. difficile Toxin B are responsive neither to SB203580 treatment nor to p38_alpha deletion. In conclusion, the protective effects of SB203580 and of p38_alpha deletion are likely not based on inhibition of the toxins’ glucosyltransferase activity rather than on inhibited endocytic uptake of specifically TcsL into target cells.

Metal Ion Activation of Clostridium sordellii Lethal Toxin and Clostridium difficile Toxin B

Lethal Toxin from Clostridium sordellii (TcsL) and Toxin B from Clostridium difficile (TcdB) belong to the family of the “Large clostridial glycosylating toxins.” These toxins mono-O-glucosylate low molecular weight GTPases of the Rho and Ras families by exploiting UDP-glucose as a hexose donor. TcsL is casually involved in the toxic shock syndrome and the gas gangrene. TcdB—together with Toxin A (TcdA)—is causative for the pseudomembranous colitis (PMC). Here, we present evidence for the in vitro metal ion activation of the glucosyltransferase and the UDP-glucose hydrolysis activity of TcsL and TcdB. The following rating is found for activation by divalent metal ions: Mn²⁺ > Co²⁺ > Mg²⁺ >> Ca²⁺, Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺. TcsL and TcdB thus require divalent metal ions providing an octahedral coordination sphere. The EC₅₀ values for TcsL were estimated at about 28 µM for Mn²⁺ and 180 µM for Mg²⁺. TcsL and TcdB further require co-stimulation by monovalent K⁺ (not by Na⁺). Finally, prebound divalent metal ions were dispensible for the cytopathic effects of TcsL and TcdB, leading to the conclusion that TcsL and TcdB recruit intracellular metal ions for activation of the glucosyltransferase activity. With regard to the intracellular metal ion concentrations, TcsL and TcdB are most likely activated by K⁺ and Mg²⁺ (rather than Mn²⁺) in mammalian target cells.

Critical functions of RhoB in support of glioblastoma tumorigenesis

BACKGROUND

RhoB is a member of the Rho small GTPase family that regulates cytoskeletal dynamics and vesicle trafficking. The RhoB homologs, RhoA and RhoC, have been shown to promote cancer progression and metastasis. In contrast, the functions of RhoB in human cancers are context dependent. Although expression of RhoB inversely correlates with disease progression in several epithelial cancers, recent data suggest that RhoB may support malignant phenotypes in certain cancer types.

METHODS

We assessed RhoB protein levels in glioma surgical specimens and patient-derived xenografts. The roles of RhoB in glioblastoma were determined by loss-of-function and gain-of-function assays in vitro and in vivo. The impact on p53 and STAT3 signaling was investigated.

RESULTS

RhoB expression was similar in tumor specimens compared with normal neural tissues obtained from epilepsy surgery. RhoB was expressed in the vast majority of xenograft tumors and spheroid cultures. Knockdown of RhoB induced cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis and compromised in vivo tumorigenic potential. However, overexpression of wild-type RhoB or a constitutively active mutant (RhoB-V14) did not significantly affect cell growth, which suggests that RhoB is not a rate-limiting oncogenic factor and is consistent with the scarcity of RhoB mutations in human cancer. Knockdown of RhoB reduced basal STAT3 activity and impaired cytokine-induced STAT3 activation. In glioblastoma tumors retaining wild-type p53, depletion of RhoB also activated p53 and induced expression of p21(CIP1) (/WAF1).

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that RhoB belongs to an emerging class of "nononcogene addiction" factors that are essential for maintenance of malignant phenotypes in human cancers.

Haemorrhagic toxin and lethal toxin from Clostridium sordellii strain vpi9048: molecular characterization and comparative analysis of substrate specificity of the large clostridial glucosylating toxins

Large clostridial glucosylating toxins (LCGTs) are produced by toxigenic strains of Clostridium difficile, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium novyi and Clostridium sordellii. While most C. sordellii strains solely produce lethal toxin (TcsL), C. sordellii strain VPI9048 co-produces both hemorrhagic toxin (TcsH) and TcsL. Here, the sequences of TcsH-9048 and TcsL-9048 are provided, showing that both toxins retain conserved LCGT features and that TcsL and TcsH are highly related to Toxin A (TcdA) and Toxin B (TcdB) from C. difficile strain VPI10463. The substrate profile of the toxins was investigated with recombinant LCGT transferase domains (rN) and a wide panel of small GTPases. rN-TcsH-9048 and rN-TcdA-10463 glucosylated preferably Rho-GTPases but also Ras-GTPases to some extent. In this respect, rN-TcsH-9048 and rN-TcdA-10463 differ from the respective full-length TcsH-9048 and TcdA-10463, which exclusively glucosylate Rho-GTPases. rN-TcsL-9048 and full length TcsL-9048 glucosylate both Rho- and Ras-GTPases, whereas rN-TcdB-10463 and full length TcdB-10463 exclusively glucosylate Rho-GTPases. Vero cells treated with full length TcsH-9048 or TcdA-10463 also showed glucosylation of Ras, albeit to a lower extent than of Rho-GTPases. Thus, in vitro analysis of substrate spectra using recombinant transferase domains corresponding to the auto-proteolytically cleaved domains, predicts more precisely the in vivo substrates than the full length toxins. Except for TcdB-1470, all LCGTs evoked increased expression of the small GTPase RhoB, which exhibited cytoprotective activity in cells treated with TcsL isoforms, but pro-apoptotic activity in cells treated with TcdA, TcdB, and TcsH. All LCGTs induced a rapid dephosphorylation of pY118-paxillin and of pS144/141-PAK1/2 prior to actin filament depolymerization indicating that disassembly of focal adhesions is an early event leading to the disorganization of the actin cytoskeleton.