Anti-inflammatory activity of methanolic extracts from edible mushrooms in LPS activated RAW 264.7 macrophages

Black Trumpet [Craterellus cornucopioides (L.) Pers.]-Bioactive Properties and Prospects for Application in Medicine and Production of Health-Promoting Food

Black trumpet (Craterellus cornucopioides) is a mushroom present in many countries but underestimated. The aim of this publication is to present the latest state of knowledge about the chemical composition and bioactivity of C. cornucopioides and the possibility of its application in food. According to researchers, black trumpet is very rich in nutritional compounds, including unsaturated fatty acids (mainly oleic and linoleic acids), β-glucans, minerals, and vitamins as well as polyphenols and tannins. It also contains compounds influencing the sensory properties, like free amino acids and nucleotides as well as sugars and polyols, mainly mannitol. Many of the described components show high nutritional and bioactive properties. Therefore, C. cornucopioides shows antioxidant activity and immunostimulating, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects as well as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and antihyperglycemic effects. This makes black trumpet, also called horn of plenty, a mushroom with great potential for use both in medicine and directly in food. So far, black trumpet is not widely used in food, especially processed food. There are only a few studies on the use of dried black trumpet in sausages, but there is great potential for its use in food.

A review of the effects of mushrooms on mood and neurocognitive health across the lifespan

Mushrooms contain bioactive compounds with documented antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions. Here, we present a systematic evaluation of epidemiological and clinical studies that investigate the role of mushrooms, either as a separate or integral dietary component, on neurocognition and mood. Following a search of four databases, a total of 34 human studies examining the effect of different mushrooms across varying age cohorts and health statuses were selected for inclusion. Epidemiological studies included in this review (n = 24) revealed a significant benefit of dietary patterns that included mushrooms of any species on cognition and mood in both healthy and compromised populations. However, the results obtained from intervention studies (n = 10) were mixed. Studies mainly investigated Lion's Mane (Hericium erinaceus), showing some enhancement of mood and cognitive function in middle-aged and older adults. Further acute and chronic human intervention studies are needed, using adequate sample sizes, employing appropriately sensitive neurocognitive tests, and investigating a range of dietary mushrooms, to confirm the effects of mushroom supplementation on neurocognition and mood in humans.

Natural Products as Dietary Agents for the Prevention and Mitigation of Oxidative Damage and Inflammation in the Intestinal Barrier

Food intake is a basic need to sustain life, but foodborne pathogens and food-related xenobiotics are also the main health concerns regarding intestinal barrier homeostasis. With a predominant role in the well-being of the entire human body, intestinal barrier homeostasis is strictly regulated by epithelial and immune cells. These cells are also the main intervenients in oxidative stress and inflammation-related diseases in the intestinal tract, triggered, for example, by genetic/epigenetic factors, food additives, pesticides, drugs, pathogens, and their metabolites. Nevertheless, the human diet can also be seen as a solution for the problem, mainly via the inclusion of functional foods or nutraceuticals that may act as antioxidant/anti-inflammatory agents to prevent and mitigate acute and chronic oxidative damage and inflammation. A literature analysis of recent advances in this topic highlights the significant role of Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) and NF-kB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) pathways in these biological processes, with many natural products and phytochemicals targeting endogenous antioxidant systems and cytokine production and balance. In this review, we summarized and discussed studies using in vitro and in vivo models of the intestinal tract used to reproduce oxidative damage and inflammatory events, as well as the role of natural products as modulators of Nrf2 and NK-kB pathways.

Antioxidative and Antibacterial Hydro-Ethanolic Fraction from an Asian Edible Mushroom Lentinus sajor-caju (Agaricomycetes) Suppresses Inflammatory Responses by Downregulating COX-2 and iNOS Expression

Mushrooms are prevalently important sources of pharmaceutically active metabolites. Various mushroom species belonging to the Lentinus genus are recognized for their nutritional and therapeutic properties. One such species is L. sajor-caju, which is renowned in Southeast Asian nations for its culinary value. The primary goal of this study is to investigate the potential medicinal properties of L. sajor-caju, specifically its antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory effects. A hydroethanolic extract was formulated using dried basidiocarps, which exhibited a high phenolic content of approximately 14% and a flavonoid content of approximately 2.7%. The extract demonstrated significant antioxidant potential in in vitro reactions. The extract is sufficiently capable of scavenging free radicals (DPPH and ABTS) and chelate Fe2+ with EC50 values spanning from 186 to 390 μg/mL. In addition, considerable antimicrobial activity against tested pathogenic microorganisms was observed, as indicated by low MIC50 values (256-358 μg/mL). Moreover, the fraction was found to prevent heat-induced protein denaturation which signifies its anti-inflammatory potential. When tested on the RAW 264.7 cell line, reduction in the nitrite production, and downregulation of COX-2 and iNOS mRNA expression was observed which are the key regulator of inflammatory signalling systems. The study, therefore, recommends the use of L. sajor-caju in the medical and pharmaceutical industries for the benefit of humanity.

Development and Characterization of High-Absorption Microencapsulated Organic Propolis EPP-AF® Extract (i-CAPs)

The demand for organic and functional food continues to increase yearly. Among the available functional foods, propolis is a bee product that has various beneficial properties, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities. However, it generally is only available in ethanol solution, which has poor bioavailability, as it is relatively insoluble in water. The use of such ethanol extracts is often objectionable because of the alcohol content and because they have a strong and striking taste. Development of alternatives that can efficiently and safely increase solubility in water, and that meet organic production specifications, has been a challenge. To address these concerns, microcapsules were developed using spray-dryer technology from an emulsion based on EPP-AF® propolis and gum arabic (i-CAPS). These propolis-loaded microcapsules were characterized using FT-IR, SEM, TGA, HPLC, and spectrophotometric techniques, along with determination of antimicrobial, antioxidant, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antihypercholesterolemic activities, as well as permeability in in vitro models. The production system resulted in microcapsules with a spherical shape and an encapsulation efficiency of 93.7 ± 0.7%. They had IC50s of 2.654 ± 0.062 and 7.342 ± 0.058 µg/mL by FRAP and DPPH antioxidant methods, respectively. The EPP-AF® i-CAPS also had superior antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria. Antitumor activity was calculated based on the concentration that inhibited 50% of growth of AGS, Caco-2, and MCF-7 cell strains, giving results of 154.0 ± 1.0, 117 ± 1.0, and 271.0 ± 25 µg/mL, respectively. The microcapsule presentation reduced the permeation of cholesterol by 53.7%, demonstrating antihypercholesterolemic activity, and it improved the permeability of p-coumaric acid and artepillin C. The IC50 for NO production in RAW 264.7 cells was 59.0 ± 0.1 µg/mL. These findings demonstrate the potential of this new propolis product as a food and pharmaceutical ingredient, though additional studies are recommended to validate the safety of proposed dosages.

Potential Beneficial Effects and Pharmacological Properties of Ergosterol, a Common Bioactive Compound in Edible Mushrooms

Ergosterol is an important sterol commonly found in edible mushrooms, and it has important nutritional value and pharmacological activity. Ergosterol is a provitamin. It has been well established that edible mushrooms are an excellent food source of vitamin D2 because ergosterol is a precursor that is converted to vitamin D2 under ultraviolet radiation. The pharmacological effects of ergosterol, which include antimicrobial, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-neurodegenerative, and other activities, have also been reported. This review aims to provide an overview of the available evidence regarding the pharmacological effects of ergosterol and its underlying mechanisms of action. Their potential benefits and applications are also discussed.

A Review on Natural Antioxidants for Their Role in the Treatment of Parkinson's Disease

The neurodegenerative condition known as Parkinson's disease (PD) is brought on by the depletion of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia, which is the brain region that controls body movement. PD occurs due to many factors, from which one of the acknowledged effects of oxidative stress is pathogenic pathways that play a role in the development of Parkinson's disease. Antioxidants, including flavonoids, vitamins E and C, and polyphenolic substances, help to reduce the oxidative stress brought on by free radicals. Consequently, this lowers the risk of neurodegenerative disorders in the long term. Although there is currently no cure for neurodegenerative illnesses, these conditions can be controlled. The treatment of this disease lessens its symptoms, which helps to preserve the patient's quality of life. Therefore, the use of naturally occurring antioxidants, such as polyphenols, which may be obtained through food or nutritional supplements and have a variety of positive effects, has emerged as an appealing alternative management strategy. This article will examine the extent of knowledge about antioxidants in the treatment of neurodegenerative illnesses, as well as future directions for research. Additionally, an evaluation of the value of antioxidants as neuroprotective agents will be provided.

Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk assessment of consuming metal-laden wild mushrooms in Nigeria: Analyses from field based and systematic review studies

This study investigated the potential health risk associated with the consumption of metal-laden mushrooms in Nigeria. Concentrations of Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn and Al in wild mushrooms collected from the Nigerian environment were measured using atomic absorption spectrometer. Also, systematic analysis of articles on metal accumulation in mushrooms from Nigeria were obtained from scientific databases. Using hazard model indices, the metal concentration in mushrooms were evaluated for their potential carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risk when consumed by adults and children. Zn and Cd, respectively, had the highest and lowest mean concentrations (mg kg-1) in the analysed mushrooms from the field study, while Fe and Co, respectively, had the highest and lowest mean concentrations (mg kg-1) in the systematically reviewed articles. In the field study, the percentage distribution of THQ of the heavy metals greater than 1 was 0% and 42.85% for adults and children respectively. While for the systematic study, 30% and 50% of the heavy metals for adults and children respectively exceeded the limit of 1. The hazard indices obtained from both the systematic and field studies for both age groups were all >1, indicating significant health risk. The findings from both the systematic and field studies revealed that consuming metal-laden mushrooms by adults and children increases the carcinogenic risk to Cd, Cr, and Ni since they exceeded the acceptable limit of 1E-04 stated by USEPA guideline. Based on the findings from the systematic and field studies, it suggests that consuming mushrooms collected from metal polluted substrates increases carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risk among Nigerians.

Bioactive Compounds and Signaling Pathways of Wolfiporia extensa in Suppressing Inflammatory Response by Network Pharmacology

Wolfiporia extensa (WE) is a medicinal mushroom and an excellent source of naturally occurring anti-inflammatory substances. However, the particular bioactive compound(s) and mechanism(s) of action against inflammation have yet to be determined. Here, we studied anti-inflammatory bioactive compounds and their molecular mechanisms through network pharmacology. Methanol (ME) extract of WE (MEWE) was used for GC-MS analysis to identify the bioactives, which were screened by following Lipinski’s rules. Public databases were used to extract selected bioactives and inflammation-related targets, and Venn diagrams exposed the common targets. Then, STRING and Cytoscape tools were used to construct protein-protein (PPI) network and mushroom-bioactives-target (M-C-T) networks. Gene Ontology and KEGG pathway analysis were performed by accessing the DAVID database and molecular docking was conducted to validate the findings. The chemical reactivity of key compounds and standard drugs was explored by the computational quantum mechanical modelling method (DFT study). Results from GC-MS revealed 27 bioactives, and all obeyed Lipinski’s rules. The public databases uncovered 284 compound-related targets and 7283 inflammation targets. A Venn diagram pointed to 42 common targets which were manifested in the PPI and M-C-T networks. KEGG analysis pointed to the HIF-1 signaling pathway and, hence, the suggested strategy for preventing the onset of inflammatory response was inhibition of downstream NFKB, MAPK, mTOR, and PI3K-Akt signaling cascades. Molecular docking revealed the strongest binding affinity for “N-(3-chlorophenyl) naphthyl carboxamide” on five target proteins associated with the HIF-1 signaling pathway. Compared to the standard drug utilized in the DFT (Density Functional Theory) analysis, the proposed bioactive showed a good electron donor component and a reduced chemical hardness energy. Our research pinpoints the therapeutic efficiency of MEWE and this work suggests a key bioactive compound and its action mechanism against inflammation.

Insights into the Chemical Composition and In Vitro Bioactive Properties of Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) Pericarp

The industrial processing of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) generates high amounts of waste, as ~60% of the fruit is formed by an inedible pericarp. However, its pericarp has been explored as a source of xanthones; nevertheless, studies addressing the recovery of other chemical compounds from such biomass are still scarce. Hence, this study intended to elucidate the chemical composition of the mangosteen pericarp, including fat-soluble (tocopherols and fatty acids) and water-soluble (organic acids and phenolic compound non-xanthones) compounds present in the following extracts: hydroethanolic (MT80), ethanolic (MTE), and aqueous (MTW). In addition, the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative and antibacterial potentials of the extracts were assessed. The mangosteen pericarp showed a composition with seven organic acids, three tocopherol isomers, four fatty acids and fifteen phenolic compounds. Regarding the extraction of phenolics, the MT80 was the most efficient (54 mg/g extract), followed by MTE (19.79 mg/g extract) and MTW (4.011 mg/g extract). All extracts showed antioxidant and antibacterial activities; however, MT80 and MTE extracts were more efficient than MTW. Only MTW did not show anti-inflammatory properties, whereas MTE and MT80 showed inhibitory activities towards tumor cell lines. Notwithstanding, MTE showed cytotoxicity towards normal cells. Our findings support the idea that the ripe mangosteen pericarp is a source of bioactive compounds, although their recovery is dependent on the extraction solvent.

Aesculus hippocastanum L.: A Simple Ornamental Plant or a Source of Compelling Molecules for Industry?

Aesculus hippocastanum L., also known as horse chestnut, is an ornamental tree whose seeds are mostly discarded in landfills in the regions where they are grown. However, recent studies have shown that these seeds can be a source of interesting compounds for several industries. This work aimed to chemically characterize horse chestnut seeds at the level of compounds recognized for their wide bioactivity, i.e., organic acids, including phenolic compounds, using chromatographic methodologies (UFLC-DAD and LC-DAD-ESI/MSn). In addition, the bioactivity of these seeds was evaluated by in vitro methodologies, seeking to relate the respective (bio)activity to the compounds present in the endocarp (husk), seed coat (skin), and peeled seed (pulp). The antioxidant activity (lipid peroxidation inhibition and oxidative haemolysis inhibition), antibacterial potential (against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria) and cytotoxicity (in human tumour cell lines and porcine liver primary cells) were evaluated. Kaempferol-O-pentoside-O-hexoside-O-hexoside was the main phenolic identified in the pulp. At the same time, (-)-epicatechin and β-type (epi)catechin dimer were the major phenolics present in husk and skin, respectively. In general, A. hippocastanum extracts presented antioxidant and antibacterial potential, without toxicity up to the maximal tested dose. Overall, these findings anticipate potential applications of A. hippocastanum seeds in food- or pharmaceutical-related uses.

Ganoderma lucidum: Current advancements of characteristic components and experimental progress in anti-liver fibrosis

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum, Lingzhi) is a well-known herbal medicine with a variety of pharmacological effects. Studies have found that G. lucidum has pharmacological effects such as antioxidant, antitumor, anti-aging, anti-liver fibrosis, and immunomodulation. The main active components of G. lucidum include triterpenoids, polysaccharides, sterols, peptides and other bioactive components. Among them, the triterpenoids and polysaccharide components of G. lucidum have a wide range of anti-liver fibrotic effects. Currently, there have been more reviews and studies on the antioxidant, antitumor, and anti-aging properties of G. lucidum. Based on the current trend of increasing number of liver fibrosis patients in the world, we summarized the role of G.lucidum extract in anti-liver fibrosis and the effect of G. lucidum extract on liver fibrosis induced by different pathogenesis, which were discussed and analyzed. Research and development ideas and references are provided for the subsequent application of G. lucidum extracts in anti-liver fibrosis treatment.

Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Sargassum macrocarpum Extracts

Oxidative stress and the inflammatory response are known to be the most important pathological factors for aging skin cells. Therefore, substances that protect skin cells from oxidative stress and inflammatory reactions of the skin have potential as functional ingredients for skin care. In the present study, we investigated the potential of Sargassum macrocarpum as an anti-inflammatory candidate for inflammatory skin disease. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities are desirable properties in such functional materials. The total polyphenol content as well as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities were evaluated in hot-water (HES) and ethanol (EES) extracts of S. macrocarpum. The polyphenol content was higher in the HES (HES: 115.9 ± 15.3 mg GA/g, EES: 3.9 ± 0.5 mg GA/g), and the HES also had ABTS (HES: IC₅₀ 1.0 ± 0.0 mg/mL, EES: IC₅₀ 16.09 ± 0.7 mg/mL) and DPPH (HES: IC₅₀ 6.50 ± 0.3 mg/mL, EES: IC₅₀ 35.3 ± 3.1 mg/mL) radical scavenging capacities as well as FRAP activity (HES: IC₅₀ 18.8 ± 0.4 mg/mL, EES: IC₅₀ n.d.). Compared with the EES at the equivalent concentration range (1.25-20 μg/mL), the HES exerted a more potent inhibitory activity on LPS-stimulated nitric oxide (10.3-43.1%), IL-6 (15.7-45.0%), and TNF-α (14.1-20.8%) in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells in addition to TNF-α and IFN-γ-facilitated IL-6 (10.9-84.1%) and IL-8 (7.7-73.2%) in HaCaT keratinocytes. These results suggested that water-soluble materials might be deeply involved in the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity in S. macrocarpum. General composition analysis indicated that the HES contains more carbohydrates and polyphenols than the EES, and the monosaccharide composition analysis suggested that fucose-containing sulfated polysaccharide and β-glucan might be potent anti-inflammatory candidates in the HES. The present study presents important preliminary results and a valuable strategy for developing novel anti-skin dermatitis candidates using a hot-water extract of S. macrocarpum.

A Review of Development and Utilization for Edible Fungal Polysaccharides: Extraction, Chemical Characteristics, and Bioactivities

Edible fungi, commonly known as mushrooms, are precious medicinal and edible homologous gifts from nature to us. Because of their distinctive flavor and exceptional nutritional and medicinal value, they have been a frequent visitor to people’s dining tables and have become a hot star in the healthcare, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics industries. Edible fungal polysaccharides (EFPs) are an essential nutrient for edible fungi to exert bioactivity. They have attracted much attention because of their antioxidant, immunomodulatory, antitumor, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic bioactivities. As a result, EFPs have demonstrated outstanding potential over the past few decades in various disciplines, including molecular biology, immunology, biotechnology, and pharmaceutical chemistry. However, the complexity of EFPs and the significant impact of mushroom variety and extraction techniques on their bioactivities prevents a complete investigation of their biological features. Therefore, the authors of this paper thoroughly reviewed the comparison of different extraction methods of EFPs and their advantages and disadvantages. In addition, the molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, and glycosidic bond type and backbone structure of EFPs are described in detail. Moreover, the in vitro and in vivo bioactivities of EFPs extracted by different methods and their potential regulatory mechanisms are summarized. These provide a valuable reference for improving the extraction process of EFPs and their production and development in the pharmaceutical field.

Nutritional Profiling and Antioxidant Property of Three Wild Edible Mushrooms from North East India

The mushroom is an important food for the rural tribal populations in Manipur, because of its high nutritional contents. In this study, we report on the nutritional profile of three wild edible mushrooms consumed by the tribal populations of Manipur viz.: Macrocybe gigantea J124; Lactifluus leptomerus J201 and Ramaria thindii J470. The studied mushrooms possess a high protein content of 37.6%, 20.8% and 16.4%, respectively. They have a high vitamin C content with low vitamin B1, B2 and folic acid. Among the three mushrooms, M. gigantea J124 possesses the highest mineral content, followed by R. thindii J470 and L. leptomerus J201. The total phenolic content of L. leptomerus J201, M. gigantea J124 and R. thindii J470 were 26.206, 29.23 and 30.99 mg GAE/g, with flavonoid content of 6.646, 6.854 and 9.187 mg quercetin/g, respectively. R. thindii J470 has the highest TPC and TFC content, which correlates with its DPPH radical scavenging activity. The IC50 values for R. thindii J470, M. gigantea J124 and L. leptomerus J201 are 242.0 µg/mL, 550.4 µg/mL and 689.0 µg/mL, respectively, which suggest that the higher content of phenolic compounds in R. thindii J470 contributes to its radical scavenging properties.

Antibacterial activity and antibacterial mechanism of ethanol extracts of Lentinula edodes (Shiitake) and Agaricus bisporus (button mushroom)

The aim of the present work was the comparison of antimicrobial activity, mechanism and components of the ethanol extract (EE) from Lentinula edodes Berk (Pegler) and Agaricus bisporus Sing (Lange). The main component of EE of A. bisporus was dianhydromannitol (20.1%), while isosorbide/dianhydromannitol (21.8%) was detected at a high rate in L. edodes ethanol extract by GC-MS . The common phenolic acids were determined as chlorogenic acid, syringic acid, rutin, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, 2-hydroxy cinnamic acid, protocatechuic acid, abscisic acid, and trans-cinnamic acid in both mushroom extract by HPLC-MWD . The MICs (minimum inhibitory concentration) of L. edodes EE on Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis and Acinetobacter baumannii were between 5.1 mg ml^-1 and 6.01 mg ml^-1, while MICs of A. bisporus EE on the pathogens were between 5.8 mg ml^-1 and 9.54 mg ml^-1. The highest DRA decrease was in E. faecalis (69.1%) for L. edodes and S. aureus (71.0%) for A. bisporus in the 20th minute. As a result, L. edodes and A. bisporus have a similar antibacterial effect on the pathogens, and this inhibition effect caused DNA, protein leakage and destruction of permeability of bacterial cell membrane by bioactive molecules in mushroom extract.

Quality Markers of Dendrobium officinale by “Oligosaccharide-Spectrum-Effect” Relationships

Dendrobium officinale Kimura et Migo has been used as a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and a functional food for thousands of years. Carbohydrate is one of the most important effective substances and indicative components in D. officinale. However, since the qualitative and quantitative analysis of polysaccharides in D. officinale remains a challenge and limitation, herein, an oligosaccharide-quality marker approach was newly developed for quality assessment of D. officinale by spectrum–effect relationships between high performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) fingerprints and anti-inflammatory effects. The HPLC fingerprints of 48 batches of oligosaccharides from D. officinale (DOOS) were developed and analyzed with similarity analysis (SA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), and eight common peaks were identified. In vitro screening experiment indicated that DOOS potentially inhibited nitric oxide (NO) production and effectively reduced the release of inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β in RAW 264.7 cells, thereby reducing the inflammatory response of cells. Finally, the HPLC fingerprint of different batches of DOOS was combined with in vitro anti-inflammatory activity to assess the spectrum–effect relationships of DOOS by gray correlation analysis (GCA), in addition, the purified oligosaccharide components were identified and validated for NO inhibitory activity. Our results showed four DOOS (maltotetraose, maltopentaose, maltohexaose, and mannohexaose) were relevant to anti-inflammatory effects and could be as quality markers for the quality control of D. officinale. It suggests that the “oligosaccharide-spectrum-effect” relationships approach is a simple and reliable method for the quality control of herb medicines or nutritious foods.

Nanoemulsions prepared from mountain ginseng-mediated gold nanoparticles and silydianin increase the anti-inflammatory effects by regulating NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways

In order to increase the bioavailability of mountain ginseng (MG), gold nanoparticles (MG-AuNPs) were biologically synthesized from MG extract, and an oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsion (SMG-AuNEs) was prepared from MG-AuNPs and a phytochemical silydianin. The physical stability of SMG-AuNEs were monitored and optimized in terms of particle size, pH value, zeta potential, and polydispersity index. The chemicostructural properties of the prepared MG-AuNPs and SMG-AuNEs were characterized using various spectrometric and microscopic analyses, such as EDX spectroscopy, FT-IR spectroscopy, and TEM. The effect of both nanomaterial samples on the anti-inflammatory activity and their underlying mechanism was compared in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. SMG-AuNEs did not show toxic effects against RAW 264.7 macrophages, HaCaT keratinocytes, and normal dermal fibroblasts. SMG-AuNEs exhibited significantly higher inhibition of pro-inflammatory genes and proteins, including IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, compared with those of MG-AuNPs and silydianin. Western blotting analysis revealed that the MAPK and NF-κB signalings were highly inhibited by SMG-AuNEs treatment. Hence, this study shows that nano-emulsification of gold nanoparticles prepared from MG is a useful method for augmenting the anti-inflammatory potential of MG. This study may serve as a foundation for using MG as a functional ingredient in anti-inflammatory agents. Our results may implicate the use of nanoemulsions to develop new anti-inflammatory products using MG.

Using metabolomics to discover the immunomodulator activity of food plants

Many edible plants exhibit immunomodulator activities that have beneficial effects on human health. These activities include the ability to activate, multiply, or suppress elements of the immune response. Some of these plants promote health by strengthening host defences against different diseases. In this article, we provide a comprehensive review of the constituents of several edible plants, their immunomodulatory activity, and mechanism of actions for Carica papaya, Coffea sp, Asparagus cochinchinensis, Dioscorea alata, beans, mushrooms, herbs, spices, and several vegetables. The studies reported here are pre-clinical (in vitro and in vivo) and clinical studies (limited in number). The bioactive compounds responsible for the immunomodulator activity of these plants were yet to be identified. This is because the plant is naturally a complex mixture, whilst the immune system is also an intricate system involving many cells and cytokines/chemokines. Metabolomics is a key tool for conducting global profiling of metabolites in a complex system. Therefore, it offers the ability to identify the presence of compounds in plant extracts associated with their immunomodulation effects. Likewise, metabolomics can also be used to detect any changes to metabolites in the cell as a response to treatment. Therefore, affected metabolic pathways that lead to the activation of certain immune responses can be determined from one single experiment. However, we found in this review that the use of a metabolomics approach is not yet fully developed for an immunomodulator study of food plants. This is important for the direction of future research in this field because unlike medicinal plants, food plants are consumed on a regular basis in small amounts with more obvious effects on the immune system. Information about possible bioactive compounds, their interactions (synergism, antagonism), and how the human body responds to them should be studied in a more holistic way.

Silver Nanoparticles as Chlorhexidine and Metronidazole Drug Delivery Platforms: Their Potential Use in Treating Periodontitis

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Edible Mushrooms: A Comprehensive Review on Bioactive Compounds with Health Benefits and Processing Aspects

Mushrooms are well-known functional foods due to the presence of a huge quantity of nutraceutical components. These are well recognized for their nutritional importance such as high protein, low fat, and low energy contents. These are rich in minerals such as iron, phosphorus, as well as in vitamins like riboflavin, thiamine, ergosterol, niacin, and ascorbic acid. They also contain bioactive constituents like secondary metabolites (terpenoids, acids, alkaloids, sesquiterpenes, polyphenolic compounds, lactones, sterols, nucleotide analogues, vitamins, and metal chelating agents) and polysaccharides chiefly β-glucans and glycoproteins. Due to the occurrence of biologically active substances, mushrooms can serve as hepatoprotective, immune-potentiating, anti-cancer, anti-viral, and hypocholesterolemic agents. They have great potential to prevent cardiovascular diseases due to their low fat and high fiber contents, as well as being foremost sources of natural antioxidants useful in reducing oxidative damages. However, mushrooms remained underutilized, despite their wide nutritional and bioactive potential. Novel green techniques are being explored for the extraction of bioactive components from edible mushrooms. The current review is intended to deliberate the nutraceutical potential of mushrooms, therapeutic properties, bioactive compounds, health benefits, and processing aspects of edible mushrooms for maintenance, and promotion of a healthy lifestyle.

Evaluation of Phytochemical Contents and In Vitro Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Anticancer Activities of Black Rice Leaf (Oryza sativa L.) Extract and Its Fractions

Black rice leaves (Oryza sativa L.) are a major part of rice straw left in open fields after rice harvest as agricultural waste. In this study, crude ethanolic extract (CEE) and various solvent fractions (hexane (Hex), ethyl acetate (EtOAc), n-butanol (n-BuOH), and aqueous fractions) of black rice leaves were investigated for their bioactive compound contents as well as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities. The results demonstrated that among all the fractions, the n-BuOH fraction presented the greatest contents of total phenolics and flavonoids, while anthocyanins were found to be abundant in the n-BuOH and aqueous fractions, which also exhibited powerful antioxidant abilities according to DPPH and ABTS radical-scavenging assays and a reducing power assay. Regarding anti-inflammatory activity, CEE and EtOAc reduced the production of NO and cytokine secretion (PGE2, IL-6, and IL-1β) but displayed less effect on tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) release in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 cells. They also significantly decreased iNOS and COX-2 protein expression. Additionally, the phenolics-rich ethyl acetate fraction showed the greatest activity against HepG2 liver carcinoma cells, inhibited cell growth, increased the Sub-G1 population, and induced apoptosis via mitochondrion-dependent mechanisms. In conclusion, black rice leaves, a byproduct of rice, exhibited strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer capacities and might be useful for application in functional foods and the pharmaceutical industry.

Diverse Krill Lipid Fractions Differentially Reduce LPS-Induced Inflammatory Markers in RAW264.7 Macrophages In Vitro

Antarctic krill oil is an emerging marine lipid and expected to be a potential functional food due to its diverse nutrients, such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), phospholipids, astaxanthin and tocopherols. Although krill oil has been previously proved to have anti-inflammatory activity, there is little information about the relationship between its chemical compositions and anti-inflammatory activity. In this study, the RAW264.7 macrophages model was used to elucidate and compare the anti-inflammatory potential of different krill lipid fractions: KLF-A, KLF-H and KLF-E, which have increasing phospholipids, EPA and DHA contents but decreasing astaxanthin and tocopherols levels. Results showed that all the krill lipid fractions alleviated the inflammatory reaction by inhibition of production of nitric oxide (NO), release of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 and gene expression of proinflammatory mediators including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). In addition, KLF-E with the highest phospholipids, EPA and DHA contents showed the strongest inhibition effect on the LPS-induced proinflammatory mediator release and their gene expressions. The results would be helpful to provide powerful insights into the underlying anti-inflammatory mechanism of krill lipid and guiding the production of krill oil products with tailor-made anti-inflammatory activity.

Assessment of the effect of ethanol extracts from Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel on intestinal inflammation using simulated gastrointestinal digestion and a Caco-2/RAW264.7 co-culture system

Cinnamomum camphora seeds have multiple bioactivities. There were few studies on the effect of C. camphora seeds on intestinal inflammation in vitro and in vivo. The study aimed to investigate the effects of ethanol extracts from C. camphora seed kernel on intestinal inflammation using simulated gastrointestinal digestion and a Caco-2/RAW264.7 co-culture system. Results showed that the digested ethanol extracts (dEE) were rich in polyphenols, and a total of 17 compounds were tentatively identified using UPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS/MS. dEE increased cell viability, while decreasing the production of reactive oxygen species, and the secretion and gene expression of inflammatory markers (NO, PGE₂, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6). dEE also down-regulated NF-κB/MAPK pathway activities by suppressing the phosphorylation of relevant signaling molecules (p65, IκBα, ERK and p38), as well as the expression of TLR4 receptor protein. Furthermore, dEE may improve intestinal barrier function by increasing the TEER value, and the expression of tight junction proteins (ZO-1, claudin-1 and occludin). The results suggest the ethanol extracts from C. camphora seed kernel may have strong anti-inflammatory activities, and a potential application in the prevention or treatment of intestinal inflammation and enhancement of intestinal barrier function in organisms.

Treasures from the forest: Evaluation of mushroom extracts as anti-cancer agents

Mushrooms provide a reliable source of bioactive compounds and have numerous nutritional values, which is one of the reasons why they are widely used for culinary purposes. They may also be a remedy for several medical conditions, including cancer diseases. Given the constantly increasing number of cancer incidents, the great anticancer potential of mushrooms has unsurprisingly become an object of interest to researchers. Therefore, this review aimed to collect and summarize all the available scientific data on the anti-cancer activity of mushroom extracts. Our research showed that mushroom extracts from 92 species, prepared using 12 different solvents, could reduce the viability of 38 various cancers. Additionally, we evaluated different experimental models: in vitro (cell model), in vivo (mice and rat model, case studies and randomized controlled trials), and in silico. Breast cancer proved to be sensitive to the highest number of mushroom extracts. The curative mechanisms of the studied mushrooms consisted in: inhibition of cancer cell proliferation, unregulated proportion of cells in cell cycle phases, induction of autophagy and phagocytosis, improved response of the immune system, and induction of apoptotic death of cells via upregulation of pro-apoptotic factors and downregulation of anti-apoptotic genes. The processes mainly involved the expression of caspases -3, -8, -9, AKT, p27, p53, BAX, and BCL2. The quoted results could lead to the classification of mushrooms as nutraceuticals used to prevent a variety of disorders or to support treatment of cancer diseases.

(E)-5-hydroxy-7-methoxy-3-(2'-hydroxybenzyl)-4-chromanone isolated from Portulaca oleracea L. suppresses LPS-induced inflammation in RAW 264.7 macrophages by downregulating inflammatory factors

CONTEXT

Portulaca oleracea L. is herbaceous succulent annual plant, which belongs to the Portulacaceae family. Many studies have shown its wide spectrum of pharmacological activities such as anti-cancer and anti-diabetic effects.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to identify the anti-inflammatory effects of HM-chromanone isolated from Portulaca oleracea L. in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

LPS (1 μg/ml)-stimulated mouse RAW 264.7 macrophages were used to assess the anti-inflammatory effect of HM-chromanone (10-50 μM). Cell viability was evaluated by MTT assay. In addition, the production of intracellular ROS, superoxide anion, lipid peroxide, NO, and PGE2, and activity of antioxidant enzymes were analyzed. The expressions of iNOS, COX-2, IκB, NF-κB, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 were evaluated by western blot analysis.

RESULTS

HM-chromanone has demonstrated that there is no significant cytotoxic effect on the viability of RAW 264.7 macrophages. In LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells, HM-chromanone treatment was found to significantly inhibit the production of intracellular ROS, superoxide anion and lipid peroxide, while enhancing the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as SOD, catalase, and GSH-px. Additionally, HM-chromanone treatment was observed to inhibit NO and PGE2 production by inhibiting the expression of iNOS and COX-2. Subsequently, HM-chromanone was observed to significantly suppress LPS-induced expression of IκB, NF-κB, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Overall, our results suggested that HM-chromanone suppresses LPS-induced inflammation in RAW 264.7 macrophages by downregulating the expression of inflammatory factors.

Bioactivity-Guided Extract Optimization of Osmanthus fragrans var. aurantiacus Leaves and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Phillyrin

The aim of this study was to identify the optimal extraction conditions for leaves of Osmanthus fragrans var. aurantiacus. Inhibitory effects of various extracts on NO production were compared. Antioxidant evaluations for total phenol and flavonoid contents were carried out using various extracts of O. fragrans var. aurantiacus leaves obtained under optimal extraction conditions that showed the greatest effect on NO production. The optimal method for extracting O. fragrans var. aurantiacus leaves resulted in an extract named OP OFLE. OP OFLE showed DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities in a concentration-dependent manner. Phillyrin (PH) was isolated as a major compound from OP OFLE by HPLC/DAD analysis. OP OFLE and PH reduced inducible nitric oxide (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 protein expression and downregulated proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 and HT-29 cells. To determine the signal pathway involved in the inhibition of NO production, a Western blot analysis was performed. Results showed that OP OFLE decreased phosphorylation of extracellular regulated kinase (pERK) 1/2 and the expression of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB). Our results suggest that extracts of O. fragrans var. aurantiacus leaves and its major components have biological activities such as antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties.

A comprehensive review on phenolic compounds from edible mushrooms: Occurrence, biological activity, application and future prospective

Phenolic compounds are minor metabolites usually present in mushroom species. Because of their potential advantages for human health, such as antioxidant and other biological activities, these bioactive components have been gaining more interest as functional foods, nutraceutical agents for providing better health conditions. This review aims to comprehensively discuss the recent advances in mushroom phenolic compounds, including new sources, structural characteristics, biological activities, potential uses and its industrial applications as well as the future perspectives. Phenolic acids as well as flavonoids are considered the most common phenolics occurring in mushroom species. These are responsible for its bioactivities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antihyperglycaemic, antiosteoporotic, anti-tyrosinase and antimicrobial activities. Several edible mushroom species with good phenolic content and show higher biological activity were highlighted, in a way for its futuristic applications. Trends on mushroom research highlighting new research areas, such as nanoformulation were discussed. Furthermore, the use of phenolic compounds as nutraceutical and cosmeceutical agents as well as the future perspectives and recommendations were made.

Effects of a High-Molecular-Weight Polysaccharides Isolated from Korean Persimmon on the Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antiwrinkle Activity

Persimmon (Diospyros kaki), a familiar and widespread fruit worldwide, is known to exhibit several physiological effects because of the presence of pharmacologically active compounds called phytochemicals. However, its high-molecular-weight compounds, particularly polysaccharides, have not been extensively studied. In this study, D. kaki extract (DK) was fractionated into low- and high-molecular-weight fractions (DK-L and DK-H, respectively) through ethanol fractionation, and their effects on antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiwrinkle activities were investigated by an in vitro system. DK-H contained significantly higher contents of neutral sugar, uronic acid, and polyphenols compared to DK and DK-L. Furthermore, DK-H exhibited significantly improved pharmacological activities, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiwrinkle properties, compared to those of DK and DK-L, demonstrating that DK-H may play an important role in mediating the beneficial effects of persimmon. Sugar composition analysis and molecular characterization indicated that DK-H consisted of a galacturonic acid (GalA)-rich polysaccharide with a molecular weight of >345 kDa that mainly comprised GalA and small amounts of neutral sugar and polyphenol residues. These results suggest that the bioactive fraction DK-H is likely to be a GalA-rich pectic polysaccharide containing a small number of polyphenol residues, which may be a novel candidate in the pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industries.

Mushrooms as potential therapeutic agents in the treatment of cancer: Evaluation of anti-glioma effects of Coprinus comatus, Cantharellus cibarius, Lycoperdon perlatum and Lactarius deliciosus extracts

Cancer incidence rates are on the increase worldwide. The most common brain cancer in adults is glioblastoma. Currently available treatment modalities are limited and natural products such as mushrooms could enhance them. Apart from nutritional value, mushrooms are an excellent source of bioactive compounds and therefore could be used to treat various disorders. The aim of the study was to assess the anti-glioma potential of selected mushrooms on U87MG, LN-18 glioblastoma and SVGp12 normal human astroglial cell lines. The materials were Cantharellus cibarius, Coprinus comatus, Lycoperdon perlatum and Lactarius delicious. Aqueous, 70 % ethanol or 95 % ethanol extracts from mushrooms were used for analysis including assessment of antioxidant activity by DPPH assay, cell viability by MTT assay, DNA biosynthesis by thymidine incorporation assay, activity of metalloproteinase by gelatin zymography and cell cycle assay by flow cytometry. Mushroom extracts influenced the viability and DNA biosynthesis of cancer cells. Activity of ethanol mushroom extracts was stronger than that of aqueous extracts. Anti-glioma mechanism consisted in inhibition of cancer cell proliferation and induction of apoptosis associated with arrest of cells in subG1 or G2/M phase of cell cycle, and inhibition of metalloproteinases activity. Among investigated mushrooms, L. deliciosus and C. comatus showed the greatest anti-glioma potential.

The biology of ergothioneine, an antioxidant nutraceutical

Ergothioneine (ERG) is an unusual thio-histidine betaine amino acid that has potent antioxidant activities. It is synthesised by a variety of microbes, especially fungi (including in mushroom fruiting bodies) and actinobacteria, but is not synthesised by plants and animals who acquire it via the soil and their diet, respectively. Animals have evolved a highly selective transporter for it, known as solute carrier family 22, member 4 (SLC22A4) in humans, signifying its importance, and ERG may even have the status of a vitamin. ERG accumulates differentially in various tissues, according to their expression of SLC22A4, favouring those such as erythrocytes that may be subject to oxidative stress. Mushroom or ERG consumption seems to provide significant prevention against oxidative stress in a large variety of systems. ERG seems to have strong cytoprotective status, and its concentration is lowered in a number of chronic inflammatory diseases. It has been passed as safe by regulatory agencies, and may have value as a nutraceutical and antioxidant more generally.

Isolation, purification, characterization, and immunomodulatory effects of polysaccharide from Auricularia auricula on RAW264.7 macrophages

Auricularia auricula polysaccharide (AAP) was isolated by hot-water extraction and purified to evaluate its structural and immunomodulatory effects on RAW264.7 macrophages. The results show that three kinds of Auricularia auricula polysaccharides (c-AAP) were obtained and named as AAP-I, AAP-II, and AAP-III Their further purification found that AAP-I and AAP-II were glycoproteins, and only AAP-III was a pure polysaccharide, which we named AAP for further experiments. Structural characteristics revealed that AAP was a homogeneous galactan comprising mannose, rhamnose, gluconic acid, glucose, galactose, arabinose, and fucose in a molar ratio of 5.02:0.9:0.12:4.48:0.37:1.0:0.36, and the average molecular weight is approximately 23.51 kDa. Methylation analysis revealed that AAP mainly consisted of 1,4-linked-Glcp, 1,4,6-linked-Glcp, terminal Glcp, 1,4-linked-Manp, 1,2,6-linked-Manp, and terminal Arap. Furthermore, the in vitro immunomodulatory activities of AAP were evaluated by cell proliferation, NO production, and phagocytic ability using RAW264.7 macrophage cells. The results show that AAP not only promoted the activation of macrophages but also provided a scientific basis for the further use of AAP. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Three water-soluble polysaccharides were extracted from Auricularia auricula of Changbai Mountain, two of which contained binding proteins. Determination of molecular weight, structure, and immunoreactivity of pure polysaccharide components. The result clearly demonstrated the benefits of this plant as a healthy functional food.

Welson N, Batiha GES. Ganoderma Lucidum from Red Mushroom Attenuates Formaldehyde-Induced Liver Damage in Experimental Male Rat Model

The majority of liver-related illnesses are caused by occupational and domestic exposure to toxic chemicals like formaldehyde (FA), which is widely common in Africa and the world at large. Hence, measures should be taken to protect humans from its hazardous effects. This study, therefore, examines the protective potential of Ganoderma lucidum (100 mg/kg body weight) on formaldehyde-induced (40%) liver oxido-inflammation in male rats. Male Wistar rats, 150-200 g, were allotted into four groups of 10 animals as follows: Group 1 was orally treated with 1 mg/mL distilled water, Group 2 was exposed to a 40% formaldehyde vapor environment for 30 min per day, Group 3 was orally treated with 100 mg/kg ethanol extract of Ganoderma lucidum, and Group 4 was co-administered formaldehyde and 100 mg/kg ethanol extract of Ganoderma lucidum. Rats were then sacrificed 24 h after administering the last dose of treatment, and the livers were excised. Ganoderma lucidum significantly reversed the formaldehyde-mediated reduction in body and organ weight. Ganoderma lucidum administration significantly prevented oxido-inflammation by reducing the levels of hydrogen peroxide and malondialdehyde and increasing the activity of antioxidant enzymes and glutathione contents, as well as the normal level of nitrite and myeloperoxidase production in FA-treated rats. Additionally, Ganoderma lucidum reversed a large decline in proinflammatory markers in formaldehyde. Furthermore, Ganoderma lucidum restores formaldehyde-induced histological alterations in the liver. Collectively, our results provide valuable information on the protective potential of Ganoderma lucidum in protecting formaldehyde-induced liver oxido-inflammation in male rats.

Nephroprotective Effect of Pleurotus ostreatus and Agaricus bisporus Extracts and Carvedilol on Ethylene Glycol-Induced Urolithiasis: Roles of NF-κB, p53, Bcl-2, Bax and Bak

This study was designed to assess the nephroprotective effects of Pleurotus ostreatus and Agaricus bisporus aqueous extracts and carvedilol on hyperoxaluria-induced urolithiasis and to scrutinize the possible roles of NF-κB, p53, Bcl-2, Bax and Bak. Phytochemical screening and GC-MS analysis of mushrooms’ aqueous extracts were also performed and revealed the presence of multiple antioxidant and anti-inflammatory components. Hyperoxaluria was induced in Wistar rats through the addition of 0.75% (v/v) ethylene glycol in drinking water for nine weeks. The ethylene glycol-administered rats were orally treated with Pleurotus ostreatus and Agaricus bisporus aqueous extracts (100 mg/kg) and carvedilol (30 mg/kg) daily during the last seven weeks. The study showed that Pleurotus ostreatus, Agaricus bisporus and carvedilol all successfully inhibited ethylene glycol-induced histological perturbations and the elevation of serum creatinine, serum urea, serum and urinary uric acid, serum, urinary and kidney oxalate, urine specific gravity, kidney calcium, kidney NF-κB, NF-κB p65, NF-κB p50, p53, Bax and Bak expressions as well as serum TNF-α and IL-1β levels. Moreover, the treatment decreased the reduction in urinary creatinine, urinary urea, ratios of urinary creatinine to serum creatinine and urinary urea to serum urea, Fex Urea and Bcl-2 expression in kidney. In conclusion, although Pleurotus ostreatus and Agaricus bisporus extracts and carvedilol all significantly inhibited the progression of nephrolithiasis and showed nephroprotective effects against ethylene glycol-induced kidney dysfunction, Pleurotus ostreatus and Agaricus bisporus seemed to be more effective than carvedilol. Moreover, the nephroprotective effects may be mediated via affecting NF-κB activation, extrinsic apoptosis and intrinsic apoptosis pathways.

The Antiviral, Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Natural Medicinal Herbs and Mushrooms and SARS-CoV-2 Infection

The 2019 novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, producing the disease COVID-19 is a pathogenic virus that targets mostly the human respiratory system and also other organs. SARS-CoV-2 is a new strain that has not been previously identified in humans, however there have been previous outbreaks of different versions of the beta coronavirus including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV1) from 2002 to 2003 and the most recent Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV) which was first identified in 2012. All of the above have been recognised as major pathogens that are a great threat to public health and global economies. Currently, no specific treatment for SARS-CoV-2 infection has been identified; however, certain drugs have shown apparent efficacy in viral inhibition of the disease. Natural substances such as herbs and mushrooms have previously demonstrated both great antiviral and anti-inflammatory activity. Thus, the possibilities of natural substances as effective treatments against COVID-19 may seem promising. One of the potential candidates against the SARS-CoV-2 virus may be Inonotus obliquus (IO), also known as chaga mushroom. IO commonly grows in Asia, Europe and North America and is widely used as a raw material in various medical conditions. In this review, we have evaluated the most effective herbs and mushrooms, in terms of the antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects which have been assessed in laboratory conditions.

Can medicinal mushrooms have prophylactic or therapeutic effect against COVID-19 and its pneumonic superinfection and complicating inflammation?

Medicinal mushrooms have documented effects against different diseases, including infections and inflammatory disorders. The related Basidiomycota Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM), Hericium erinaceus (HE), and Grifola frondosa (GF) have been shown to exert antimicrobial activity against viral agents, Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria, and parasites in vitro and in vivo. Since the mechanism is immunomodulatory and not antibiotical, the mushrooms should be active against multi‐drug resistant microbes as well. Moreover, since these Basidiomycota also have anti‐inflammatory properties, they may be suited for treatment of the severe lung inflammation that often follows COVID‐19 infection. An AbM‐based mushroom extract (Andosan™), also containing HE and GF, has been shown to significantly reduce bacteraemia and increase survival in mice with pneumococcal sepsis, and to improve symptoms and quality of life in IBD patients via an anti‐inflammatory effect. Hence, such mushroom extracts could have prophylactic or therapeutic effect against the pneumonic superinfection and severe lung inflammation that often complicates COVID‐19 infection. Here, we review antimicrobial and anti‐inflammatory properties of AbM, HE and GF mushrooms, which could be used for the battle against COVID‐19.

Metabolomic analysis of Cyrtopodium glutiniferum extract by UHPLC-MS/MS and in vitro antiproliferative and genotoxicity assessment

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Extracts of orchids have been traditionally used as human phytotherapeutics. Cyrtopodium flavum, for example, due to the analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties, beside the capacity of heal skin lesions has been focus of research. Also Cyrtopodium glutiniferum, an orchid found in the Brazilian southeastern rainforest, is known to synthesize anti-inflammatory glucomannans in the pseudobulbs, as other potentially therapeutic compounds.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We have reported the first metabolomic analysis focused on the phenols expression of the neotropical orchid Cyrtopodium glutiniferum Raddi, besides free radical scavenging, anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative activities, and the genotoxicity properties of the aqueous extract.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The metabolomics of C. glutiniferum aqueous extract was performed through UHPLC-MSⁿ acquisition. We have detected the scavenging potential of the extract using DPPH assay. The genotoxic potential was performed by Ames Test (0-5000 μg mL^-1) and micronucleous assay (0-5000 μg mL^-1) in RAW264.7 cells. The cytotoxic potential of the extract against RAW264.7 was tested by WST-1 assay (0-500 μg mL^-1). And after all, the RAW264.7 cells were treated with non-cytotoxic concentrations of C. glutiniferum (0-50 μg mL^-1) to evaluate the antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory potential, besides the mitochondrial activity.

RESULTS

From the 55 molecules identified, 45.5% belonged to the phenolic compounds database from Phenol Explorer, 29% to an in-house Orchidaceae molecules database, and 25.5% to both. Among the identified phenolic compounds, 18 subclasses were discriminated, being phenanthrenes the most abundant. Doses-dependent of C. glutiniferum extracts were able to induce DPPH free radicals scavenging and also to increase TA100 His⁺ revertants, in metabolic environment, showing mutagenicity just in the highest concentration, of 5 mg/plate. On Eukaryotic cell models, the extract also has induced dose-response and time-response cytotoxicity against RAW264.7 macrophages, mainly after 48 h and 72 h, even though the extract has not been able to induce the increase of micronucleated cells and mitotic index alteration on Micronucleus assay. The activation and proliferation of macrophages cultures were downregulated after 24 h and 48 h by the non-cytotoxic concentrations of the extract in a dose-dependent manner.

CONCLUSIONS

The Cyrtopodium glutiniferum metabolomics, anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative properties observed in this study suggest a therapeutic efficacy of the orchid extract applied in folk medicine.

Pharmacological appraisal of ligustrazine based cyclohexanone analogs as inhibitors of inflammatory markers

The targeting of pro-inflammatory enzymes becomes a therapeutic intervention when acute inflammation is proliferating in pathological conditions. This research is intended to carry out an evaluation of inhibiting and inducing enzymes with inflammatory associations with 28 cyclohexanone analogs based on the ligustrazine. Tests were undertaken with inhibitor screening assay kits using a range of synthetic compounds to investigate how they could inhibit the activity of cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, secretory phospholipase A₂ (sPLA₂), and lipoxygenase (LOX) enzyme. Significant and similar inhibitory activities against sPLA₂ with were noted with synthetic compounds which included 1f and 1g (IC₅₀ = 2.2 μM). The optimal inhibitory activity regarding LOX enzyme was shown with compounds 1d (IC₅₀ = 8.1 μM) and 1e (IC₅₀ = 7.5 μM). Additionally, the compounds 1b, 1d, 1e, 2n, and 2o were shown to be significant inhibitors of COX-1 activity with IC₅₀ values 0.09 to 0.7 μM. The outcomes of assays for COX inhibition demonstrated that the same compounds had a further strong inhibitive influence on the COX-2 enzyme, and certain compounds such as 1d, 1e, and 2n demonstrated enhanced potency compared with positive controls.

Characterization of Ginkgo biloba Leaf Flavonoids as Neuroexocytosis Regulators

Ginkgo biloba leaf (GBL) is known as a potential source of bioactive flavonoids, such as quercetin, arresting the neuronal soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE)-zippering. Here, the GBL flavonoids were isolated in two different manners and then examined for their bioactivity, physicochemical stability, and biocompatibility. The majority of flavonoids in the non-hydrolyzed and acidolyzed isolates, termed non-hydrolyzed isolate (NI) and acidolyzed isolate (AI) hereafter, were rich in flavonol glycosides and aglycones, respectively. Glycosidic/aglyconic quercetin and kaempferol were abundant in both NI and AI, whereas a little of apigenin, luteolin, and isorhamnetin were found in AI. NI was more thermostable in all pH ranges than quercetin, kaempferol, and AI. NI and AI both inhibited neurotransmitter release from differentiated neuronal PC-12 cells. NI and AI showed 1/2–1/3 lower EC₅₀/CC₅₀ values than quercetin and kaempferol. The NI and AI exhibited no toxicity assessed by the tests on chorioallantoic membranes of hen’s eggs, removing toxicological concerns of irritation potential. Moreover, GBL isolates, particularly AI, showed antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities in the use below the CC₅₀ levels. Taken together, these results suggest that GBL isolates that are rich in antioxidant flavonoids are effective anti-neuroexocytotic agents with high stability and low toxicity.

The Role of Bioactive Compounds and other Metabolites from Mushrooms against Skin Disorders- A Systematic Review Assessing their Cosmeceutical and Nutricosmetic Outcomes

Bioactive compounds derived from mushrooms have been shown to present promising potential as cosmeceutical or nutricosmetic ingredients. Scientific data reviewed herein showed that extracts prepared from medicinal and edible mushrooms and their individual metabolites presented antiinflammatory, antioxidant, photoprotective, antimicrobial, anti-tyrosinase, anti-elastase, and anticollagenase activities. These metabolites can be utilised as ingredients to suppress the severity of Inflammatory Skin Diseases, offer photoprotection to the skin, and correct Hyperpigmentation. However, studies regarding the molecular mechanism behind the mentioned bioactivities are still lacking. Challenges associated with the use of mushroom extracts and their associated metabolites as cosmeceutical and nutricosmetic ingredients include several steps from the fruiting bodies to the final product: extraction optimization, estimation of the efficacy and safety claims, the use of micro and nanocarriers to allow for controlled release and the pros and cons associated with the use of extracts vs individual compounds. This systematic review highlights that mushrooms contain diverse biomolecules that can be sustainably used in the development of nutricosmetic and cosmeceutical formulations. Reports regarding stability, compatibility, and safety assessment, but also toxicological studies are still needed to be considered. Furthermore, some of the constraints and limitations hindering the development of this type of ingredients still require long-term studies to achieve major breakthroughs.

Lentinula edodes as a Source of Bioelements Released into Artificial Digestive Juices and Potential Anti-inflammatory Material

Lentinula edodes (shiitake), an edible and medicinal mushroom, was chosen for this study with the aim of evaluating the possibility of release of bioelements into artificial digestive juices and analyzing the anti-inflammatory properties. The extracts were prepared from fruiting bodies and biomass enriched with copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and selenium (Se). The content of bioelements was analyzed by total reflection X-ray fluorescence method. Relatively low content of elements was observed in the fruiting bodies: Cu-1.6, Zn-7.6, and Se-0.12 mg/100 g d.w. compared to mycelial cultures. The anti-inflammatory properties were evaluated in RAW 264.7 cells. Based on the levels of cyclooxygenase 2 protein, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ determined using Western blot technique, it was found that the addition of bioelements enhanced the anti-inflammatory properties of mycelium. This indicates that L. edodes cultured on a suitable medium may be used as a potential component of anti-inflammatory products.

Phytochemicals in Garlic Extract Inhibit Therapeutic Enzyme DPP-4 and Induce Skeletal Muscle Cell Proliferation: A Possible Mechanism of Action to Benefit the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is a severe health problem in Mexico, and its prevalence is increasing exponentially every year. Recently, DPP-4 (dipeptidyl peptidase-4) inhibitors have become attractive oral anti-hyperglycemic agents to reduce the pathology of diabetes. Gliptin’s family, such as sitagliptin, vildagliptin, and alogliptin, are in clinical use to treat diabetes mellitus but possess side effects. Therefore, there is a specific need to look for new therapeutic scaffolds (biomolecules). Garlic bulb is widely used as a traditional remedy for the treatment of diabetes. The garlic extracts are scientifically proven to control glucose levels in patients with diabetes, despite the unknown mechanism of action. The aim of the study is to investigate the antidiabetic effects of ultrasonication assisted garlic bulb extract. To achieve this, in-vitro assays such as DPP-4 inhibitory and antioxidant activities were investigated. Further, functional group analysis using FTIR and identification of phytochemicals using mass spectrometry analysis was performed. The results showed that 70.9 µg/mL of garlic bulb extract inhibited 50% DPP-4 activity. On top of that, the garlic extract exhibited a 20% scavenging activity, equivalent to 10 µg/mL of ascorbic acid. Molecular docking simulations on identified phytochemicals using mass spectrometry revealed their potential binding at the DPP-4 druggable region, and therefore the possible DPP-4 inhibition mechanism. These results suggest that prepared garlic extract contains phytochemicals that inhibit DPP-4 and have antioxidant activity. Also, the prepared extract induces skeletal muscle cell proliferation that demonstrates the antidiabetic effect and its possible mechanism of action.

Comparison of Phytochemicals, Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Sun-, Oven- and Freeze-Dried Ginger Extracts

The effects of different drying methods, including sun-, oven-, and freeze-drying on the changes in the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of ginger (Zingiber officinale var. Rubra) rhizome were studied. Sun-, oven-, and freeze-dried ginger showed a significant (p < 0.05) increase in phenolic content by 1.79, 1.53, and 1.91-fold; flavonoid content increased by 6.06, 5.27, and 4.90-fold; FRAP increased by 3.95, 3.51, and 3.15-fold; ABTS^•+ scavenging activity increased by 2.07, 1.72, and 1.61-fold; and DPPH^• inhibition increased by 78%, 58%, and 56%, respectively. Dried ginger also exhibited better inhibitory effects on the lipopolysaccharides-induced nitric oxide production in murine macrophage RAW 264.7. The drying process demonstrated a positive effect on the bioactivities of ginger. The sun-dried ginger exhibited the most potent antioxidant properties with the best enhanced anti-inflammatory activity followed by the oven-dried ginger and lastly, the freeze-dried ginger.

The effect of drying temperature on bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of Leccinum scabrum (Bull.) Gray and Hericium erinaceus (Bull.) Pers

In the study the effect of drying temperature on phenolic and organic acid content, total phenolic content, ergosterol content, antioxidant activity and content of 40 elements in fruiting bodies of Leccinum scabrum and Hericium erinaceus was estimated. The analysis was performed for fresh fruiting bodies and those dried at 20, 40 and 70 °C. Drying resulted in changes in the profile of phenolic and organic acids. Drying generally resulted in losses of the content of total phenolics, ergosterol and antioxidant activity in both species. However, a reduction and an increase of phenolic acids and organic acids were observed. The greatest reduction of the compounds was generally observed at 70 °C. The greatest losses concerned organic acids (some single components and total) (even more than 90% of some compounds). The inhibition of free radicals decreased in the following order: fresh samples > air-dried samples > samples dried at 40 °C > samples dried at 70 °C. The drying temperature affected only selected element contents in fruiting bodies.