Antioxidant and antiproliferative activities in immature and mature wheat kernels

The Effect of Farming Systems and Cultivars on the Qualitative and Quantitative Composition of Bioactive Compounds in Winter Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Triticum aestivum L. subsp. spelta (cv. Rokosz) and common winter wheat Triticum aestivum L. subsp. aestivum (cv. Arktis, Belissa, Estivus, Fidelius, Hondia, Jantarka, KWS Ozon, Linus, Markiza, Ostka Strzelecka, Pokusa) grown in an organic farming system were analyzed and compared. Furthermore, the productivity of four common wheat cultivars (cv. Fidelius, Hondia, Jantarka, KWS Ozon) grown under four different (organic, conventional integrated, and monoculture) farming systems was compared. Using UPLC-DAD-MS, UPLC-PDA-MS/MS, and TLC-DPPH•, nine phenolic acids, nine alkylresorcinols, and their antiradical activity were identified and quantified. In the organic farming system, the highest yield was observed for T. aestivum L. subsp. aestivum cv. Fidelius (4.17 t/ha). Infections of wheat cultivars were low or at a medium level. The highest resistance to Fusarium fungi was shown by cv. Fidelius, which also exhibited the highest alkylresorcinol content and antioxidant capacity. The total phenolic acid content was highest in cv. Rokosz (1302.3 µg/g), followed by common winter wheat cultivars cv. Linus (1135.1 µg/g) and cv. Markiza (1089.6 µg/g). The potential of winter wheat cultivars for human health and their suitability for cultivation in different production systems was determined, showing significant differences in bioactive compounds depending on cultivars, systems, and years.

Effect of Maturity Stage on Cereal and Leguminous Seeds' Metabolome as Analyzed Using Gas Chromatography Mass-Spectrometry (GC-MS) and Chemometric Tools

Cereal and leguminous seeds are considered as major generic dietary source of energy, carbohydrates as well as proteins in the Mediterranean diet and are frequently consumed in their immature form in several regions including the Middle East. Hence, the current study aimed to assess metabolites' heterogeneity amongst five major cereal and leguminous seeds of different species, and cultivars, i.e., Triticum aestivum L. (two cultivars), Hordeum vulgare L., Vicia faba L. and Cicer arietinum L., at different maturity stages. Gas chromatography mass-spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis using multivariate data analyses was employed for nutrient profiling and sample segregation assessed using chemometric tools, respectively. A total of 70 peaks belonging to sugars, fatty acids/esters, steroids, amino acids and organic acids were identified including sucrose, melibiose, glucose and fructose as major sugars, with butyl caprylate, hydroxybutanoic acid and malic acid contributing to the discrimination between seed species at different maturity stages. The investigation of total protein content revealed comparable protein levels amongst all examined seeds with the highest level detected at 20.1% w/w in mature fava bean. Results of this study provide a novel insight on cereal and leguminous seeds' metabolomics in the context of their maturity stages for the first time in literature.

Insights into the effects of extractable phenolic compounds and Maillard reaction products on the antioxidant activity of roasted wheat flours with different maturities

Experiments were performed to determine the effect of roasting whole wheat flours at 80 °C, 100 °C and 120 °C for 30 min on four forms of phenolics, Maillard reaction products (MRPs), and the DPPH scavenging activity (DSA) at 15, 30 and 45 days after flowering (15-DAF, 30-DAF, and 45-DAF). Roasting increased the phenolic content and antioxidant activity of the wheat flours, which were the dominant contributions to the formation of Maillard reaction products. The highest total phenolic content (TPC) and total phenolic DSA (TDSA) were determined in the DAF-15 flours at 120 °C/30 min. The DAF-15 flours exhibited the highest browning index and fluorescence of free intermediate compounds and advanced MRPs, suggesting that a substantial quantity of MRPs were formed. Four forms of phenolic compounds were detected with significantly different DSAs in the roasted wheat flours. The insoluble-bound phenolic compounds exhibited the highest DSA, followed by the glycosylated phenolic compounds.

Technology characteristics and flavor changes of traditional green wheat product nian zhuan in Northern China

Nian zhuan has its aroma as one of the perceived principal characteristics. The current study was aimed mainly to investigate the potential to include the aroma of nian zhuan as a new target criterion into the green wheat product chain. By improving the conditions for the traditional processing of nian zhuan, the optimal processing conditions were determined as green wheat (GW) 14 d, steaming the green wheat with the skin (SGWS) 26 min and cooked green wheat peeled (CGWP) 280 min, to evaluate the feasibility of using electronic nose (E-nose) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to discriminate nian zhuan in different stages. E-nose was used to recognize nian zhuan odors in different processing stages, and GC-MS to identify the individual volatile compounds. A total of 139 volatile compounds were detected by GC-MS, of which 71 key were screened by t-test (P < 0.01). The W1W, W1S, W2W and W2S sensors of E-nose gave higher responses to all samples, and effectively discriminated the samples. The most volatile compounds were produced in the millstone milling (MSM) stage of nian zhuan, and millstone could promote the release of volatile compounds from cooked green wheat by milling.

Young cereal grains as a new source of healthy and hypoallergenic foods: a review

Young cereals contain higher quantities of nutrients such as sterols, γ-oryzanols, tocols and phenolic compounds than mature grains. They are more easily digested with low allergenic potential. Applications of young cereals include plant-based milk substitutes, substitution of wheat flour, malting, fructose and pigments production. Research on young cereals is scarce and mainly focused on botanical studies. This review focused on major young cereals (wheat, rice and corn) compositions, bioactive compounds and applications that will benefit future research in plant-based food and functional ingredients. During grain maturity, amylose content increased, whereas amylopectin content and its structure varied depending largely on grain type. In rice, non-significant differences in average chain length of amylopectin during grain maturity were reported, with protein contents of young rice and wheat higher than at their mature stages. High digestibility of the flowery-to-milky stage rice protein indicated lower allergen levels. Immune-reactive gluten was not found in young wheat. Young wheat contained high essential amino acids with a more balanced profile, particularly for lysine. The angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitory effect of milky stage protein hydrolysate was higher than mature protein. Young grains contained less starch with more fiber and sugar. Antioxidant activity in young rice was high as it contained gamma-oryzanol, ascorbate, glutathione tocopherols and phenolic compounds. This review of the available information concerning the composition, properties and functional ingredients of immature cereals will assist future research in plant-based food and functional ingredients.

Metabolite profile and antioxidant potential of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) during malting

In addition to barley, wheat malt is considered an important beer material because of the recent popularity of wheat beer in the global market. The changes in metabolite profiles and antioxidant potential of wheat samples collected every 24 h during malting were investigated. Dynamic metabolite changes through ¹H NMR-based metabolomics approaches, quantitative individual phenolic acids by high-performance liquid chromatography and antioxidant potential by colorimetric methods were assessed. Orthogonal projection to latent structure with discriminant analysis showed that metabolites were responsible for discrimination of each malting stage for wheat. Phenolic acids, whose main component was ferulic acid, increased with time during wheat malting. Much higher phenolic acid contents were found in rootlets/acrospires than in the bodies of dried wheat malt. The overall results of this study provide novel information on changes in dynamic metabolites during wheat malting.

Characteristics of Sunsik, a Cereal-Based Ready-to-Drink Korean Beverage, with Added Germinated Wheat and Herbal Plant Extract

The purpose of this study was to develop a formulation of Sunsik with improved health benefits by adding germinated wheat (GW) and herbal plant extract (HPE) using a response surface methodology (RSM). The central composite experimental design (CCD) was used to evaluate the effects of Sunsik with added HPE (2–4%) and GW (10–20%) on total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging capacity, gamma butyric acid (GABA) content, total color changes (△E), browning index (BI), water absorption index (WAI), and water solubility index (WSI). As a result of the CCD, the independent and dependent variables were fitted by the second-order polynomial equation, and the lack of fit for response surface models was not significant except in relation to WSI. The GABA content, TPC, and TEAC were more adequate for a linear model than for a quadratic model, and they might be affected by GW rather than HPE. Alternatively, the TFC, DPPH radical scavenging capacity, WAI, WSI, △E, and BI were fitted with quadratic models. The optimum formulation that could improve antioxidant and physicochemical properties was Sunsik with 3.5% and 20% added HPE and GW, respectively.

A Sight to Wheat Bran: High Value-Added Products

Recently more consideration has been given to the use of renewable materials and agricultural residues. Wheat production is increasing yearly and correspondingly, the volume of by-products from the wheat process is increasing, as well. It is important to find the use of the residuals for higher value-added products, and not just for the food industry or animal feed purposes as it is happening now. Agricultural residue of the roller milled wheat grain is a wheat bran description. The low-cost of wheat bran and its composition assortment provides a good source of substrate for various enzymes and organic acids production and other biotechnological applications. The main purpose of this review article is to look into recent trends, developments, and applications of wheat bran.

Changes in Bread Quality, Antioxidant Activity, and Phenolic Acid Composition of Wheats During Early-Stage Germination

This study reported changes in baking properties, total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant activity, and phenolic acid composition of three hard red winter wheat varieties during the early stage of seed germination. The wheats were sprouted at 30 °C and 95% relative humidity to achieve different germination levels based on falling number ranges (550 s for control flour; 350 s [low], 250 s [medium], and 120 s [high] for sprouted flours, respectively). Average germination times were 7, 8, and 10 hr for the low, medium, and high germinated samples, respectively. Most baking properties of sprouted whole flour were comparable to the control flour. However, TPC, flavonoid content, phenolic acids, and antioxidant activity of sprouted flour were lower than the control flour. To our knowledge, this is the first study that reported both baking properties and antioxidant potential of sprouted whole wheat flour from early-stage germination. The study deepens the understanding of seed germination and the potential use of sprouted flour in baking industry. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study evaluates the baking quality and nutraceutical value of sprouted whole wheat flour, which are key factors determining the application of sprouted flour in the baking industry. The results will contribute to the production of quality bakery products with enhanced nutraceutical benefits.

Effects of Germination on Protein, γ-Aminobutyric Acid, Phenolic Acids, and Antioxidant Capacity in Wheat

Germinated wheat is a food material with potential health benefits due to its high phenolic and antioxidant content, but the reason why germination increases this content is unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between protein changes (determined by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE)), phenolics, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels, and antioxidant capacity of wheat germinated for various periods (24, 48, 72, and 96 h) compared to control. Each phenolic acid tended to increase with increasing germination time. The GABA content was highest (39.98 mg/100 g dwb) after 96 h of germination. The total oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) was 1.97 times higher after 96 h than in ungerminated seeds. Fifteen proteins, among 82 proteins separated by 2-DE, were highly related with ORAC and were identified by peptide mass fingerprinting (PMS). The PMS revealed strong expression of granule bound starch synthase (GBSS) and glutathione S-transferase (GSTF) after 96 h of germination. Overall, the ORAC at 96 h exhibited a close relationship with the levels of phenolic acids, GABA, and proteins such as GBSS and GSTF. In conclusion, these findings add to the existing knowledge of wheat protein changes and their relationship to the antioxidant properties of germinating wheat seeds.

Metabolomic approach for characterization of phenolic compounds in different wheat genotypes during grain development

The phenolic-profiling of seven different wheat (Triticum aestivum) genotypes was investigated for the first time during different stages of grain development (milky, softy, physiological maturity and mature). Free and bound phenolic compounds were extracted separately and analyzed by UPLC-QTOF-MS^E. Total phenolic content significantly decreased, up to 50% depending on the genotype, towards the maturation of grain. The highest content (free and bound) was observed in the most immature grains, while the lowest level was found in mature grains (408.0 and 165.0 GAE mg/100 g, respectively). Globally, 237 phenolic compounds were identified, divided into 5 classes: flavonoids (85), phenolic acids (77), other polyphenols (51), lignans (16) and stilbenes (8). UPLC-MS results showed a progressively decrease of the number of phenolic identification (ID) all along grain development, milky (213), softy (192), physiological maturity (169) and mature (144). The proportion bound to free phenolic progressively increased, reaching the maximum at physiological maturity, indicating a possible enzymatic reactions and complexation during grain growth. Ferulic acid, diphyllin, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, ferulic acid isomer, apigenin 7-O-apiosyl-glucoside isomer and myricetin isomer were the most abundant compounds. Chemometric tools showed a clear separation between immature and mature grain for all genotypes. Phenolic profile varied significantly among genotypes, this result can help the selection of varieties towards a higher retention of bioactive compounds. Noteworthy, immature wheat grains can be considered a rich source of phenolic compounds and as an attractive ingredient to incorporate to functional foods.

Phytochemical Compositions of Immature Wheat Bran, and Its Antioxidant Capacity, Cell Growth Inhibition, and Apoptosis Induction through Tumor Suppressor Gene

The purpose of this study was to investigate the phytochemical compositions and antioxidant capacity, cell growth inhibition, and apoptosis induction in extracts of immature wheat bran. Immature wheat bran (IWB) was obtained from immature wheat harvested 10 days earlier than mature wheat. The phytochemical compositions of bran extract samples were analyzed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography. The total ferulic acid (3.09 mg/g) and p-coumaric acid (75 µg/g) in IWB were significantly higher than in mature wheat bran (MWB, ferulic acid: 1.79 mg/g; p-coumaric acid: 55 µg/g). The oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC: 327 µM Trolox equivalents (TE)/g) and cellular antioxidant activity (CAA: 4.59 µM Quercetin equivalents (QE)/g) of the IWB were higher than those of the MWB (ORAC: 281 µM TE/g; CAA: 0.63 µM QE/g). When assessing cell proliferation, the IWB extracts resulted in the lowest EC₅₀ values against HT-29 (18.9 mg/mL), Caco-2 (7.74 mg/mL), and HeLa cells (8.17 mg/mL) among bran extract samples. Additionally, the IWB extracts increased the gene expression of p53 and PTEN (tumor suppressor genes) in HT-29 cells, indicating inhibited cell growth and induced apoptosis through tumor suppressor genes.