The functional properties of chitosan-glucose-asparagine Maillard reaction products and mitigation of acrylamide formation by chitosans

Dietary Acrylamide: A Detailed Review on Formation, Detection, Mitigation, and Its Health Impacts

In today's fast-paced world, people increasingly rely on a variety of processed foods due to their busy lifestyles. The enhanced flavors, vibrant colors, and ease of accessibility at reasonable prices have made ready-to-eat foods the easiest and simplest choice to satiate hunger, especially those that undergo thermal processing. However, these foods often contain an unsaturated amide called 'Acrylamide', known by its chemical name 2-propenamide, which is a contaminant formed when a carbohydrate- or protein-rich food product is thermally processed at more than 120 °C through methods like frying, baking, or roasting. Consuming foods with elevated levels of acrylamide can induce harmful toxicity such as neurotoxicity, hepatoxicity, cardiovascular toxicity, reproductive toxicity, and prenatal and postnatal toxicity. This review delves into the major pathways and factors influencing acrylamide formation in food, discusses its adverse effects on human health, and explores recent techniques for the detection and mitigation of acrylamide in food. This review could be of interest to a wide audience in the food industry that manufactures processed foods. A multi-faceted strategy is necessary to identify and resolve the factors responsible for the browning of food, ensure safety standards, and preserve essential food quality traits.

Inhibition of advance glycation end products formation, gastrointestinal digestion, absorption and toxicity: A comprehensive review

Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) are the final products of the non-enzymatic interaction between reducing sugars and amino groups in proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. In numerous diseases, such as diabetes, neuropathy, atherosclerosis, aging, nephropathy, retinopathy, and chronic renal illness, accumulation of AGEs has been proposed as a pathogenic mechanism of inflammation, oxidative stress, and structural tissue damage leading to chronic vascular issues. Current studies on the inhibition of AGEs mainly focused on food processing. However, there are few studies on the inhibition of AGEs during digestion, absorption and metabolism although there are still plenty of AGEs in our body with our daily diet. This review comprehensively expounded AGEs inhibition mechanism based on the whole process of digestion, absorption and metabolism by polyphenols, amino acids, hydrophilic colloid, carnosine and other new anti-glycation agents. Our study will provide a ground-breaking perspective on mediation or inhibition AGEs.

Effect of Chitosan Incorporation on the Development of Acrylamide during Maillard Reaction in Fructose-Asparagine Model Solution and the Functional Characteristics of the Resultants

The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effect of 0.5% chitosan incorporation on acrylamide development in a food model solution containing 0.5% fructose and asparagine after heating for 30 min at 180 °C. All the solutions were investigated for the following characteristics: acrylamide, asparagine, reducing sugar content, color, kinematic viscosity, Maillard reaction products (MRPs), and pH every 10 min. After heating for 10 min, the viscosity of chitosan-containing solutions reduced significantly. The investigational data confirmed that chitosan may have decomposed into lower molecular structures, as demonstrated by the reduced viscosity of the solution at pH < 6 and a decrease in the acrylamide content during 30 min of heating in a fructose−asparagine system. This study also confirms that the formation of ultraviolet-absorbing intermediates and browning intensity of MRPs containing acrylamide prepared by fructose−asparagine was more than those of MRPs prepared by glucose−asparagine solution system. MRPs containing acrylamide resulted from the reaction of asparagine with fructose (ketose) rather than glucose (aldose). Acrylamide formation could be significantly mitigated in the fructose−asparagine−chitosan model system as compared to the fructose−asparagine model system for possible beverage and food application.

Natural Antioxidants and Hydrocolloids as a Mitigation Strategy to Inhibit Advanced Glycation End Products (AGEs) and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) in Butter Cookies

Maillard reaction during food processing contributes to the formation of some unpleasant heat-induced toxicants including advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). The current study prepared butter cookies fortified with two dietary natural antioxidants (catechins and curcumin) and two dietary hydrocolloids (pectin and chitosan), and investigated their effects on formation of free N^ε-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML)/N^ε-(carboxyethyl)lysine (CEL), protein-bound CML/CEL and HMF and on the sensory qualities of butter cookies. Meanwhile, three typical α-dicarbonyl compounds were also determined to identify possible correlations between α-dicarbonyl intermediates and formation of these harmful heat-induced products in butter cookies. Experimental data showed that catechin exhibited the strongest inhibitory effects on formation of AGEs and HMF, but its addition would impair the color and taste of cookies. On the other hand, chitosan was not so effective in inhibiting AGEs and HMF as compared to catechin, but its addition could increase the sensory qualities of butter cookies.

Quality Formation of Adzuki Bean Baked: From Acrylamide to Volatiles under Microwave Heating and Drum Roasting

Baked adzuki beans are rich in tantalizing odor and nutritional components, such as protein, dietary fiber, vitamin B, and minerals. To analyze the final quality of baked beans, the acrylamide and volatile formation of adzuki beans were investigated under the conditions of microwave baking and drum roasting. The results indicate that the acrylamide formation in baked adzuki beans obeys the exponential growth function during the baking process, where a rapid increase in acrylamide content occurs at a critical temperature and low moisture content. The critical temperature that leads to a sudden increase in acrylamide content is 116.5 °C for the moisture content of 5.6% (w.b.) in microwave baking and 91.6 °C for the moisture content of 6.1% (w.b.) in drum roasting. The microwave-baked adzuki beans had a higher formation of the kinetics of acrylamide than that of drum-roasted beans due to the microwave volumetric heating mode. The acrylamide content in baked adzuki beans had a significant correlation with their color due to the Maillard reaction. A color difference of 11.1 and 3.6 may be introduced to evaluate the starting point of the increase in acrylamide content under microwave baking and drum roasting, respectively. Heating processes, including microwave baking and drum roasting, for adzuki beans generate characteristic volatile compounds such as furan, pyrazine, ketone, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, pyrroles, sulfocompound, phenols, and pyridine. Regarding flavor formation, beans baked via drum roasting showed better flavor quality than microwave-baked beans.

Effect of Hydroxymethylfurfural and Low-Molecular-Weight Chitosan on Formation of Acrylamide and Hydroxymethylfurfural during Maillard Reaction in Glucose and Asparagine Model Systems

The aim of this research was to investigate the effects of the addition of 0.5% hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and low molecular chitosan on acrylamide and HMF formation in a food model system, which contains 0.5% glucose, asparagine, and HMF within 30 min of heating at 180 °C. At an interval of 10 min, all solutions were evaluated in the following aspects: reducing sugar, asparagine, acrylamide, HMF content, pH, Maillard reaction products, kinematic viscosity, and color. After heating for 10 min, the kinematic viscosity of solutions containing chitosan reduced significantly. The values of the acrylamide, HMF, and absorbance increased at OD₂₉₄ and OD₄₂₀ (optical density measured at 294 nm and 420 nm) of solutions. Experimental results showed that low-molecular-weight chitosan might be hydrolyzed into much lower molecular weight, followed by the decrease in kinematic viscosity of the solution at pH lower than 6 and the increase in the formation of acrylamide after heating for 30 min.

Inhibitory effect of polysaccharides on acrylamide formation in chemical and food model systems

The inhibitory effect of three polysaccharides (alginate, pectin and chitosan) on acrylamide formation was investigated in chemical and fried potato food model systems, under two heating regimes (heating block and microwave). In the chemical system, acrylamide formation followed a second order reaction kinetic behaviour. Activation energies (Ea) were 17.85 and 110.78 kJ/mol for conventional and microwave heating respectively. Acrylamide content was highest at 180 °C after 60 min conventional heating (27.88 ng/ml) and 3.5 fold higher after microwave heating for 60 s (800 W, 98.02 ng/ml). Alginate (0.3% w/v) and pectin (0.2% w/v) solutions efficiently inhibited acrylamide formation by 65% and 56% respectively under conventional heating, and 36% and 30% respectively under microwave heating. Coating potatoes with alginate, pectin and chitosan (1% w/v) prior to frying dramatically inhibited acrylamide formation by 54%, 51% and 41% respectively. However only alginate and pectin slightly reduced acrylamide by 5% in the microwave.

Acrylamide-induced peripheral neuropathy: manifestations, mechanisms, and potential treatment modalities

Acrylamide is a chemical monomer; its polymer compounds are used in the manufacture of plastic, papers, adhesive tapes, dyes, and food packaging. Lately, scientists found that cooking (mainly roasting, baking, and frying) yields acrylamide. In addition to fried/baked potatoes, coffee and bakery products still contain substantial amounts of acrylamide. Acrylamide has toxic effects on different body systems include genitourinary, reproductive, nervous system, along with being a carcinogenic substance. The neurotoxicity of acrylamide includes central and peripheral neuropathy. In humans, the clinical manifestations include sensory or motor peripheral neuropathy, drowsiness, or cerebellar ataxia. Likewise, it presents with skeletal muscle weakness, hindlimb dysfunction, ataxia, and weight loss in animals. The suggested mechanisms for acrylamide neurotoxicity include direct inhibition of neurotransmission, cellular changes, inhibition of key cellular enzymes, and bonding of kinesin-based fast axonal transport. Moreover, it is suggested that acrylamide's molecular effect on SNARE core kinetics is carried out through the adduction of NSF and/or SNARE proteins. Lately, scientists showed disruption of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and proline-rich tyrosine kinase 2 (Pyk2) cell signaling pathways in human differentiating neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells, exposed to acrylamide. Different treatment modalities have been revealed to shield against or hasten recovery from acrylamide-induced neuropathy in preclinical studies, including phytochemical, biological, and vitamin-based compounds. Still, additional studies are needed to elucidate the pathogenesis and to identify the best treatment modality.

Mitigation effect of sodium alginate on acrylamide formation in fried potato chips system based on response surface methodology

Acrylamide is a known neurotoxin and probable carcinogen in humans. Researchers reported that foods rich in carbohydrates could generate high amounts of acrylamide at high temperatures. In recent years, hydrocolloids are applied to reduce acrylamide in thermally processed foods and the effect has been well proved. The present work was to investigate the effect of sodium alginate as the coating agent on acrylamide formation in fried potato chips by a Box-Behnken design. The optimized processing conditions were: sodium alginate at the concentration of 1.34%, frying time at 4.38 min, and frying temperature at 179 °C. The corresponding inhibition rate of acrylamide was 76.59%. Compared to the control group, the oil absorption of coating chips decreased significantly, whereas the addition of sodium alginate did not affect the quality of potato chips. Scanning electron microscope analysis revealed that coating with sodium alginate could effectively prevent oil uptake, which might contribute to acrylamide mitigation. Overall, sodium alginate significantly mitigated acrylamide formation in fried potato chips. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Sodium alginate could significantly reduce acrylamide formation in fried potato chips systems. Sodium alginate may therefore be a new mitigation strategy for acrylamide formation in commercial fried foods without prejudice to main quality properties valued by consumers.

Conception of novel blue crab chitosan films crosslinked with different saccharides via the Maillard reaction with improved functional and biological properties

This work aimed to modify blue crab chitosan-based films through the Maillard reaction (MR) as a novel alternative to improve their functional and biological properties. To this end, different saccharides (glucose (aldohexose), fructose (ketohexose), xylose (aldopentose) and arabinose (aldopentose)), at different weight ratios 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 % (g/100 g polymer), were studied, and films were heated at 90 °C for 24 h. Based on color changes and browning index measurements, the extent of MR was the highest with aldopentoses, whereas hexoses and particularly ketohexoses, exhibited a relative crosslinking rate. These findings were further reflected with an improvement in treated films mechanical properties and thermal degradation temperatures, and advantageously, barrier properties against UV light and water. In addition, the MR-modified Cs-based films antioxidant activity was interestingly enhanced with mainly aldopentoses. Consequently, MR crosslinked chitosan-based films are promising alternative for active and functional packaging able of food oxidation hindering, especially using aldopentoses.

Obtaining glycoconjugates of marine origin via Maillard reaction and their cytotoxic effect: an alternative for the use of animal byproducts

BACKGROUND

Protein glycation by Maillard reaction is commonly used to improve the functional and bioactive properties of food proteins. It is also known that this glycation method can be accelerated by heat without the need for chemical reagents that could be harmful to health. In this study, glycoconjugates were obtained from a mixture of connective tissue proteins (CTP) from jumbo squid (Dosidicus gigas) and two different sugars, dextran (DEX; 10 kDa) and glucose (GLU), using protein-to-carbohydrate ratios of 1:2 and 1:3, in solution at 50 °C for 6 h. The glycation products were characterized by means of their physicochemical properties and cytotoxic effect.

RESULTS

The intensity of the browning measured at A_420nm and A_294nm in glycoconjugates showed no significant difference (P < 0.05). CTP-DEX (1:2) and CTP-DEX (1:3) were those products with the greatest fluorescence related to the intermediate stage in the Maillard reaction, and also with the highest degree of glycation, which was confirmed using o-phthaldialdehyde assay and Fourier transform infrared analysis. The values of cellular viability for CTP-GLU (1:3), CTP-DEX (1:2, 1:3) as well as CTP (0, 6 h) were around 92-103%.

CONCLUSIONS

The operational parameters used in the glycation process achieved the formation of glycoconjugates from proteins of D. gigas, showing no cytotoxic effect on the HaCaT cell line. This research proposes an alternative for the modification of proteins and opens the way to future investigations regarding the bioactivity of these macromolecules to have applications for the use of byproducts in food science and technology. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effects of calcium citrate, chitosan and chitooligosaccharide addition on acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural formation in dark brown sugar

Calcium citrate, chitosan, and chitooligosaccharide were added to sugarcane juice to investigate their effect on color, pH, antioxidant activity, reducing sugar, acrylamide and HMF mitigation in dark brown sugar production. Results showed that the content of 52-67% acrylamide in the dark brown sugar was mitigated with 0.1-1.0% chitosan addition and the reducing power of dark brown sugar increased with 0.5-1.0% chitosan addition. Furthermore, the addition of 0.5-1.0% chitosan or chitooligosaccharide increased HMF formation. Only the pH of dark brown sugar with chitosan addition was lower than that of other dark brown sugars. This is due to the low pH condition in dark brown sugar mitigating Maillard reaction and acrylamide formation. When the pH of sugarcane juice with chitosan adjusted back to pH 7 again, the acrylamide content of dark brown sugars significant increased (p < 0.05). Acrylamide and HMF are both produced through the Maillard reaction, the lower pH will cause the hydrolysis of sucrose to produce more HMF and reducing sugar. The L values and white index of dark brown sugar with 0.5-1.0% added chitosan were lower than those of control dark brown sugar (p < 0.05). High negative correlation was observed between HMF and acrylamide in the present study.

Effects of Dark Brown Sugar Replacing Sucrose and Calcium Carbonate, Chitosan, and Chitooligosaccharide Addition on Acrylamide and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural Mitigation in Brown Sugar Cookies

The objective of this study was to evaluate effects of dark brown sugar on acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) levels in brown sugar cookies. Dark brown sugar was used as a raw material instead of sucrose, and chitosan, chitooligosaccharides, or calcium carbonate were added to investigate their effect on acrylamide and HMF mitigation. The results demonstrated that the higher the content of acrylamide in the dark brown sugar, the higher the amount of acrylamide produced in baked brown sugar cookies. The addition of dark brown sugar significantly increased the diameter and decreased the thickness of cookies, which induced more acrylamide formation. Therefore, the sucrose control cookies were harder and thicker than dark brown sugar cookies. The addition of 1% chitosan, chitooligosaccharide, or calcium carbonate did not reduce the acrylamide formation of the brown sugar cookies. The content of acrylamide and HMF in the sucrose control group was lower than that in dark brown sugar groups, and chitooligosaccharide increased the level of HMF. This is due to the fact that the content of reducing sugar in dark brown sugar is higher than that in sucrose, and dark brown sugar contains acrylamide. There was no difference in the concentration of reducing sugar between test and control cookies (p > 0.05). The L values of brown sugar were lower than those of sucrose cookies, especially for chitooligosaccharide addition (p < 0.05). The addition of chitooligosaccharide generated more Maillard reaction products and caramelization. The reducing power of dark brown sugar cookies was higher than that of sucrose control cookies. The baking industry should choose sucrose or dark brown sugar containing a low acrylamide content as an ingredient to prevent the final products from containing high levels of acrylamide.