UV-C irradiated gallic acid exhibits enhanced antimicrobial activity via generation of reactive oxidative species and quinone

Food additives as photosensitizers: A systematic review and narrative synthesis

Photosensitizers are the key molecules determining the efficacy of anti-microbial photodynamic inactivation. However, photosensitizers for clinical use frequently fail to satisfy safety standards required by the food industry. A variety of strategies could be employed to address these issues i.e. focusing on photosensitizers with high efficiency (>3-log decrease in CFU), on food additives with minimal effects on food qualities (taste, texture, appearance, or nutrients), and also approved photosensitizers by regulatory authorities. This review summarizes 48 relevant studies that reported on the photodynamic activities of approved food additives. We report food additives with favorable photosensitive properties, which are capable of producing reactive oxygen species upon exposure to light at appropriate wavelengths, thereby inactivating various foodborne pathogens with great promise for food sterilization. The information presented in this systematic review may provide practical insights for implementation of photodynamic inactivation in industrial settings and encourage future development of food-grade photosensitizers for food sterilization.

UV-C light-activated gallic acid and non-thermal technologies for inactivating Salmonella Typhimurium inoculated in aqueous solution and whole cow milk

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of UV-C light-activated gallic acid (GA) alone and combined with ultrasound (US) or ultraviolet-C light (UV-C, 254 nm) on the inactivation of Salmonella Typhimurium in aqueous solution for being later applied to whole cow milk. First-order, Weibull, and Beta models were used to describe the inactivation kinetics of S. Typhimurium by GA alone and combined with non-thermal technologies. Results indicated that GA concentration, the UV-C light activation process, and the combination of US and UV-C light significantly affected (p < 0.05) the inactivation of S. Typhimurium in aqueous solution, which was properly described by the first order (R2 > 0.84), Weibull (R2 > 0.96), and Beta (R2 > 0.83) models. The activation process of GA increased its antimicrobial activity in the range of 40.87-101.44 %. Moreover, with the highest concentration of GA and the application of US or UV-C light, >5 log reductions were achieved. Nevertheless, although these combinations were applied to whole cow milk, a low reduction (2.0-log cycles) was obtained, regardless of the GA activation and non-thermal technologies. Therefore, the effect of GA, whether UV-C light activated or not, on S. Typhimurium depends on the food matrix. This highlights that in whole cow milk, this treatment was insufficient to ensure safety, even when combined with non-thermal technologies. INDUSTRIAL RELEVANCE: UV-C light and US are non-thermal technologies used as alternatives to thermal treatments. These technologies can be used on their own or in combination; however, in many cases, the necessary microbial reduction is not attained, thus the use of complementary techniques or processes is required. GA is a phenolic compound with low antimicrobial activity; however, UV-C light may activate its antimicrobial activity. In this sense, this study shows the potential application of GA and non-thermal technologies for inactivating S. Typhimurium in an aqueous solution and the first approach of this methodology in whole cow milk as a liquid food product.

Investigating the Antibacterial Effect of a Novel Gallic Acid-Based Green Sanitizer Formulation

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the mechanism of action of our newly developed green sanitizer formulation comprising a natural phenolic compound, gallic acid (GA), strengthened by the Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) materials hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and DL-lactic acid (LA). Combining 8 mM GA with 1 mM H2O2 resulted in an abundant generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and a bactericidal effect towards Gram-negative (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas syringae, and Pectobacterium brasiliense) and Gram-positive (Bacillus subtilis) bacteria (4 to 8 log CFU mL-1 reduction). However, the exposure to this dual formulation (DF) caused only a modest 0.7 log CFU mL-1 reduction in the Gram-positive L. innocua population. Amending the DF with 20 mM LA to yield a triple formulation (TF) resulted in the efficient synergistic control of L. innocua proliferation without increasing ROS production. Despite the inability to grow on plates (>7 log CFU mL-1 population reduction), the TF-exposed L. innocua maintained high intracellular ATP pools and stable membrane integrity. The response of L. innocua to TF could be qualified as a "viable but nonculturable" (VBNC) phenomenon, while with the other species tested this formulation caused cell death. This research system may offer a platform for exploring the VBNC phenomenon, a critical food safety topic.

Preparation, characterization, and application of gallic acid-mediated photodynamic chitosan-nanocellulose-based films

In this study, an active film composed of gallic acid (GA), chitosan (CS), and cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) was prepared using a solution casting method and synergistic photodynamic inactivation (PDI) technology. Characterization of the film showed that the CS-CNC-GA composite film had high transparency and UV-blocking ability. The addition of GA (0.2 %-1.0 %) significantly enhanced the mechanical properties, water resistance, and thermal stability of the film. The tensile strength increased up to 46.30 MPa, and the lowest water vapor permeability was 1.16 × e-12 g/(cm·s·Pa). The PDI-treated CS-CNC-GA1.0 composite film exhibited significantly enhanced antibacterial activity, with inhibition zone diameters of 31.83 mm against Staphylococcus aureus and 21.82 mm against Escherichia coli. The CS-CNC-GA composite film also showed good antioxidant activity. Additionally, the CS-CNC-GA1.0 composite film generated a large amount of singlet oxygen under UV-C light irradiation. It was found that using the CS-CNC-GA1.0 composite film for packaging and storage of oysters at 4 °C effectively delayed the increase in pH, total colony count, and lipid oxidation in oysters. In conclusion, the CS-CNC-GA composite film based on PDI technology has great potential for applications in the preservation of aquatic products.

Photodynamic activation of phytochemical-antibiotic combinations for combatting Staphylococcus aureus from acute wound infections

Staphylococcus aureus is characterized by its high resistance to conventional antibiotics, particularly methicillin-resistant (MRSA) strains, making it a predominant pathogen in acute and chronic wound infections. The persistence of acute S. aureus wound infections poses a threat by increasing the incidence of their chronicity. This study investigated the potential of photodynamic activation using phytochemical-antibiotic combinations to eliminate S. aureus under conditions representative of acute wound infections, aiming to mitigate the risk of chronicity. The strategy applied takes advantage of the promising antibacterial and photosensitising properties of phytochemicals, and their ability to act as antibiotic adjuvants. The antibacterial activity of selected phytochemicals (berberine, curcumin, farnesol, gallic acid, and quercetin; 6.25-1000 μg/mL) and antibiotics (ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, fusidic acid, oxacillin, gentamicin, mupirocin, methicillin, and tobramycin; 0.0625-1024 μg/mL) was screened individually and in combination against two S. aureus clinical strains (methicillin-resistant and -susceptible-MRSA and MSSA). The photodynamic activity of the phytochemicals was assessed using a light-emitting diode (LED) system with blue (420 nm) or UV-A (365 nm) variants, at 30 mW/cm2 (light doses of 9, 18, 27 J/cm2) and 5.5 mW/cm2 (light doses of 1.5, 3.3 and 5.0 J/cm2), respectively. Notably, all phytochemicals restored antibiotic activity, with 9 and 13 combinations exhibiting potentiating effects on MSSA and MRSA, respectively. Photodynamic activation with blue light (420 nm) resulted in an 8- to 80-fold reduction in the bactericidal concentration of berberine against MSSA and MRSA, while curcumin caused 80-fold reduction for both strains at the light dose of 18 J/cm2. Berberine and curcumin-antibiotic combinations when subjected to photodynamic activation (420 nm light, 10 min, 18 J/cm2) reduced S. aureus culturability by ≈9 log CFU/mL. These combinations lowered the bactericidal concentration of antibiotics, achieving a 2048-fold reduction for gentamicin and 512-fold reduction for tobramycin. Overall, the dual approach involving antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation and selected phytochemical-antibiotic combinations demonstrated a synergistic effect, drastically reducing the culturability of S. aureus and restoring the activity of gentamicin and tobramycin.

Effect of plasma-activated organic acids on different chicken cuts inoculated with Salmonella Typhimurium and Campylobacter jejuni and their antioxidant activity

Lactic acid, gallic acid, and their mixture (1% each) were prepared (LA, GA, and LGA) and plasma-activated organic acids (PAOA) were produced through exposure to plasma for 1 h (PAL, PAG, and PLGA). Chicken breast and drumstick were immersed in the prepared solutions for 10 min and analyzed their antibacterial effect against Salmonella Typhimurium and Campylobacter jejuni and antioxidant activity during 12 d of storage. As a result, PAOA inactivated approximately 6.37 log CFU/mL against S. Typhimurium and 2.76, 1.86, and 3.04 log CFU/mL against C. jejuni (PAL, PAG, and PLGA, respectively). Moreover, PAOA had bactericidal effect in both chicken parts inoculated with pathogens, with PAL and PLGA displaying higher antibacterial activity compared to PAG. Meanwhile, PAOA inhibited lipid oxidation in chicken meats, and PAG and PLGA had higher oxidative stability during storage compared to PAL. This can be attributed to the superior antioxidant properties of GA and LGA, including higher total phenolic contents, ABTS+ reducing activity, and DPPH radical scavenging activity, when compared to LA. In particular, when combined with plasma treatment, LGA showed the greatest improvement in antioxidant activity compared to other organic acids. In summary, PLGA not only had a synergistic bactericidal effect against pathogens on chicken, but also improved oxidative stability during storage. Therefore, PLGA can be an effective method for controlling microorganisms without adverse effect on lipid oxidation for different chicken cuts.

Ultraefficient OG-Mediated Photodynamic Inactivation Mechanism for Ablation of Bacteria and Biofilms in Water Augmented by Potassium Iodide under Blue Light Irradiation

While photodynamic inactivation (PDI) has emerged as a novel sterilization strategy for drinking water treatment that recently attracted tremendous attention, its efficiency needs to be further improved. In this study, we aimed to clarify the ultraefficient mechanism by which potassium iodide (KI) potentiates octyl gallate (OG)-mediated PDI against bacteria and biofilms in water. When OG (0.15 mM) and bacteria were exposed to blue light (BL, 420 nm, 210 mW/cm2), complete sterilization (>7.5 Log cfu/mL of killing) was achieved by the addition of KI (250 mM) within only 5 min (63.9 J/cm2). In addition, at lower doses of OG (0.1 mM) with KI (100 mM), the biofilm was completely eradicated within 10 min (127.8 J/cm2). The KI-potentiated mechanism involves in situ rapid photogeneration of a multitude of reactive oxygen species, especially hydroxyl radicals (•OH), reactive iodine species, and new photocytocidal substances (quinone) by multiple photochemical pathways, which led to the destruction of cell membranes and membrane proteins, the cleavage of genomic DNA and extracellular DNA within biofilms, and the degradation of QS signaling molecules. This multitarget synergistic strategy provided new insights into the development of an environmentally friendly, safe, and ultraefficient photodynamic drinking water sterilization technology.

The inhibitory mechanism of 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo [4,5-f] quinoxaline (MeIQx) formation by ultraviolet-gallic acid (UV-GA) during the oil-frying process of squid

The inhibitory effect of ultraviolet-gallic acid (UV-GA) on carbonyl valence and intermediates and precursors of 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo [4,5-f] quinoxaline (MeIQx) was investigated to futher clarify the inhibitory mechanism for safety control the quality of oil-fried squid. Ultraviolet C-treated gallic acid (UVC-GA) and ultraviolet B-treated gallic acid (UVB-GA) were produced by ultraviolet 225 nm of band C and 300 nm of band B, respectively. The MeIQx contents in oil-fried squid were significantly higher, and UVC-GA and UVB-GA could significantly inhibit the MeIQx formation and the formation rates of carbonyl valence and precursors (threonine (Thr), creatinine, and glucose). The UVB-GA inhibited formaldehyde formation, while UVC-GA significantly reduced the formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and 2,5-dimethyl pyrazine contents. In conculsion, UV-GA reduced carbonyl produced from the lipid oxidation to further weaken the catalysis of carbonyl, rendering the MeIQx precursor degrading into the intermediates during Strecker degradation. Thus, the MeIQx formation was inhibited.

Amelioration of 5-Fluorouracil Induced Nephrotoxicity by Acacia catechu through Overcoming Oxidative Damage and Inflammation in Wistar Rats

AIM

The research intended to explore the possible nephroprotective potential of the ethyl acetate fraction derived from Acacia catechu leaves against nephrotoxicity brought about by 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) in Wistar rats.

BACKGROUND

While possessing strong anticancer properties, 5-FU is hindered in its therapeutic application due to significant organ toxicity linked to elevated oxidative stress and inflammation.

OBJECTIVE

The study is undertaken to conduct an analysis of the ethyl acetate fraction of A. catechu leaves both in terms of quality and quantity, examining its impact on different biochemical and histopathological parameters within the context of 5-FU-induced renal damage in rats and elucidation of the mechanism behind the observed outcomes.

METHODOLOGY

Intraperitoneal injection of 5-FU at a dosage of 20 mg/kg/day over 5 days was given to induce nephrotoxicity in rats. The evaluation of nephrotoxicity involved quantifying serum creatinine, urea, uric acid, and electrolyte concentrations. Furthermore, superoxide dismutase, catalase antioxidant enzymes, and TNF-α concentration in serum were also measured.

RESULTS

5-FU injection led to the initiation of oxidative stress within the kidneys, leading to modifications in renal biomarkers (including serum creatinine, urea, uric acid, and Na+, K+ levels), and a reduction in antioxidant enzymes namely superoxide dismutase and catalase. Notably, the presence of the inflammatory cytokine TNF-α was significantly elevated due to 5-FU. Microscopic examination of renal tissue revealed tubular degeneration and congestion. However, treatment involving the ethyl acetate fraction derived from A. catechu leaves effectively and dose-dependently reversed the changes observed in renal biomarkers, renal antioxidant enzymes, inflammatory mediators, and histopathological features, bringing them closer to normal conditions. The observed recuperative impact was mainly attributed to the antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties of the fraction.

CONCLUSION

The ethyl acetate fraction of A. catechu leaves exhibited a mitigating influence on the renal impairment caused by 5-FU, showcasing its potential as a nephroprotective agent capable of preventing and ameliorating 5-FU-induced nephrotoxicity.

Functionalized SnO2 nanoparticles with gallic acid via green chemical approach for enhanced photocatalytic degradation of citalopram: synthesis, characterization and application to pharmaceutical wastewater treatment

Eco-friendly stannic oxide nanoparticles functionalized with gallic acid (SnO2/GA NP) were synthesized and employed as a novel photocatalyst for the degradation of citalopram, a commonly prescribed antidepressant drug. SnO2/GA NP were characterized using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller measurements and X-ray diffraction. A validated RP-HPLC assay was developed to monitor citalopram concentration in the presence of its degradation products. Full factorial design (24) was conducted to investigate the effect of irradiation time, pH, SnO2/GA NP loading and initial citalopram concentration on the efficiency of the photodegradation process. Citalopram initial concentration was found to be the most significant parameter followed by irradiation time and pH, respectively. At optimum conditions, 88.43 ± 0.7% degradation of citalopram (25.00 µg/mL) was obtained in 1 h using UV light (1.01 mW/cm2). Citalopram kinetics of degradation followed pseudo-first order rate with Kobs and t0.5 of - 0.037 min-1 and 18.73 min, respectively. The optimized protocol was successfully applied for treatment of water samples collected during different cleaning validation cycles of citalopram production lines. The reusability of SnO2/GA NP was studied for 3 cycles without significant loss in activity. This approach would provide a green and economic alternative for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment of organic pollutants.

Dual-Stage Blue-Light-Guided Membrane and DNA-Targeted Photodynamic Inactivation Using Octyl Gallate for Ultraefficient Eradication of Planktonic Bacteria and Sessile Biofilms

This study aimed to investigate the synergistic bactericidal activity and mechanism of dual-stage light-guided membrane and DNA-targeted photodynamic inactivation (PDI) by the combination of blue light (BL, 420 nm) and the food additive octyl gallate (OG) against Vibrio parahaemolyticus in planktonic and biofilm growth modes. While OG serves as an outstanding exogenous photosensitizer, the planktonic cells were not visibly detectable after the OG-mediated PDI treatment with 0.2 mM OG within 15 min (191.7 J/cm²), and its biofilm was nearly eradicated within 60 min (383.4 J/cm²). Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus was more susceptible to the PDI than Gram-negative V. parahaemolyticus. The cellular wall and proteins, as well as DNA, were the vulnerable targets for PDI. The membrane integrity could be initially disrupted by OG bearing a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail via transmembrane insertion. The enhancement of OG uptake due to the first-stage light-assisted photochemical internalization (PCI) promoted the accumulation of OG in cells. It further boosted the second-stage light irradiation of the photosensitizer-inducing massive cell death. Upon the second-stage BL irradiation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated through the OG-mediated PDI in situ could extensively deconstruct membranes, proteins, and DNA, as well as biofilms, while OG could be activated by BL to carry out photochemical reactions involving the formation of OG-bacterial membrane protein (BMP) covalent conjugates and the interactions with DNA. This dual-stage light-guided subcellular dual-targeted PDI strategy exhibits encouraging effects on the eradication of planktonic bacteria and sessile biofilms, which provides a new insight into the development of an ultraeffective antimicrobial and biofilm removing/reducing technique to improve microbiological safety in the food industry.

Protective Effects of Intestinal Gallic Acid in Neonatal Dairy Calves Against Extended-Spectrum β-lactamase Producing Enteroaggregative Escherichia coli Infection: Modulating Intestinal Homeostasis and Colitis

Calf diarrhea induced by enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) spreads fast among young ruminants, causing continuous hazard to dairy industry. Antimicrobial drug abuse aggravates the incidence rate of multi-drug resistant (MDR) extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing E. coli (ESBL-EC). However, knowledge of detection and significance of disease-related biomarkers in neonatal female calves are still limited. Gallic acid (GA), a natural secondary metabolite mostly derived from plants, has attracted increasing attention for its excellent anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties. However, it is vague how GA engenders amelioration effects on clinical symptoms and colitis induced by ESBL-EAEC infection in neonatal animals. Here, differentiated gut microbiome and fecal metabolome discerned from neonatal calves were analyzed to ascertain biomarkers in their early lives. Commensal Collinsella and Coriobacterium acted as key microbial markers mediating colonization resistance. In addition, there exists a strongly positive relation between GA, short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) or other prebiotics, and those commensals using random forest machine learning algorithm and Spearman correlation analyses. The protective effect of GA pretreatment on bacterial growth, cell adherence, and ESBL-EAEC-lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated Caco-2 cells were first assessed, and results revealed direct antibacterial effects and diminished colonic cell inflammation. Then, oral GA mediated colitis attenuation and recovery of colonic short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) productions on neonatal mice peritonitis sepsis or oral infection model. To corroborate this phenomenon, fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) method was adopted to remedy the bacterial infection. Of note, FMT from GA-treated neonatal mice achieved profound remission of clinical symptoms and colitis over the other groups as demonstrated by antibacterial capability and prominent anti-inflammatory abilities, revealing improved hindgut microbiota structure with enriched Clostridia_UCG-014, Lachnospiraceae, Oscillospiraceae, and Enterococcaceae, and upregulation of SCFA productions. Collectively, our findings provided the direct evidence of hindgut microbiota and intestinal metabolites, discriminating the health status of neonatal calves post ESBL-EAEC infection. The data provided novel insights into GA-mediated remission of colitis via amelioration of hindgut commensal structure and upregulation of SCFA productions. In addition, its eminent role as potential antibiotic alternative or synergist for future clinic ESBL-EAEC control in livestock.

New Horizons in Microbiological Food Safety: Ultraefficient Photodynamic Inactivation Based on a Gallic Acid Derivative and UV-A Light and Its Application with Electrospun Cyclodextrin Nanofibers

An excellent bactericidal effect of octyl gallate (OG)-mediated photodynamic inactivation (PDI) against foodborne pathogens (Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus) was evaluated in relation to the mode of action. UV-A irradiation (wavelength, 365 nm; irradiance, 8.254 ± 0.18 mW/cm²) of the bacterial suspension containing 0.15 mM OG could lead to a >5-log reduction of viable cell counts within 30 min for E. coli and only 5 min for S. aureus. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation was considered the main reason for the bactericidal effect of OG + UV-A light treatment because toxic ROS induced by OG-mediated PDI could attack the cellular wall, proteins, and DNA of microbes. Moreover, the bactericidal effect, as well as the yields of ROS, depended on OG concentrations, irradiation time, and laser output power. Furthermore, we prepared an edible photodynamic antimicrobial membrane comprising electrospun cyclodextrin nanofibers (NFs) by embedding OG. The resultant OG/HPβCD NFs (273.6 μg/mL) under UV-A irradiation for 30 min (14.58 J/cm) could cause a great reduction (>5-log) of viable bacterial counts of E. coli. The in situ photodynamic antibacterial activity of OG/HPβCD NF-based packaging was evaluated during the Chinese giant salamander storage. Overall, this research highlights the dual functionalities (antibacterial and photodynamic properties) of OG as both an antibacterial agent and photosensitizer and the effectiveness of electrospun NFs containing OG as an active antibacterial packaging material for food preservation upon UV light illumination.

Synergistic inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Staphylococcus aureus by gallic acid and thymol and its potential application on fresh-cut tomatoes

Antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Staphylococcus aureus of five typical plant-derived compounds [gallic acid (G.A), citral (Cit), thymol (Thy), salicylic acid (S.A), lauric acid (L.A)] were investigated by determining the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI). The results showed that only a combination of Thy and G.A (TGA), with a concentration of 0.1 and 1.25 mg/mL, respectively, had a synergistic effect (FICI = 0.5) on both E. coli O157:H7 and S. aureus. The amount of Thy and G.A in mixture were four-fold lower than the MICs of the individuals shown to cause the equivalent antimicrobial activity in trypticase soy broth (TSB). The microbial reduction obtained in TSB with addition of TGA were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than the reduction shown for the broth supplemented with the separated phenolics. TGA caused the changes of morphology and membrane integrity of bacteria. Additionally, the application of TGA on fresh-cut tomatoes are investigated. Fresh-cut tomatoes inoculated with E. coli O157:H7and S. aureus were washed for 2min, 5min, 10min at 4 °C, 25 °C, 40 °C in 0.3% NaOCl, or water containing TGA at various concentrations. Overall, the reduction of TGA achieved against S. aureus is higher than E. coli O157:H7. Same concentrations of combined antimicrobials at a temperature of 40 °C further increased the degree of microbial inactivation, with an additional 0.89-1.51 log CFU/g reduction compared to that at 25 °C. Moreover, 1/2MIC_Thy+1/2MIC_G.A at 25 °C for 10min or 40 °C for 5min were generally acceptable with sensorial scores higher than 7. Our results showed that TGA could work synergistically on the inactivation of the tested bacteria and may be used as an alternative disinfectant of fresh produce.

Ultra-efficient antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation system based on blue light and octyl gallate for ablation of planktonic bacteria and biofilms of Pseudomonas fluorescens

Pseudomonas fluorescens is a Gram-negative spoilage bacterium and dense biofilm producer, causing food spoilage and persistent contamination. Here, we report an ultra-efficient photodynamic inactivation (PDI) system based on blue light (BL) and octyl gallate (OG) to eradicate bacteria and biofilms of P. fluorescens. OG-mediated PDI could lead to a > 5-Log reduction of viable cell counts within 15 min for P. fluorescens. The activity is exerted through rapid penetration of OG towards the cells with the generation of a high-level toxic reactive oxygen species triggered by BL irradiation. Moreover, OG plus BL irradiation can efficiently not only prevent the formation of biofilms but also scavenge the existing biofilms. Additionally, it was shown that the combination of OG/poly(lactic acid) electrospun nanofibers and BL have great potential as antimicrobial packagings for maintaining the freshness of the salamander storge. These prove that OG-mediated PDI can provide a superior platform for eradicating bacteria and biofilm.

Gallic Acid Induces Neural Stem Cell Differentiation into Neurons and Proliferation through the MAPK/ERK Pathway

Neural stem cell (NSC) differentiation and proliferation are important biological processes in the cerebral neural network. However, these two abilities of NSCs are limited. Thus, the induction of differentiation and/or proliferation through the administration of plant-derived small-molecule compounds could be used to repair damaged neural networks. The present study reported that gallic acid (GA), an important phenolic acid found in tea, selectively caused NSCs to differentiate into immature neurons and promoted NSC proliferation by activating the mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular-regulated kinase (MAPK/ERK) pathway. In addition, it was found that 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid was the main active structure exhibiting neurotrophic activity. The substitution of the carboxyl group on the benzene ring with the ester group may promote differentiation based on the structure of 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid. Furthermore, the introduction of the 5-hydroxyl group may promote proliferation. The present study identified that GA can promote the differentiation and proliferation of NSCs in vitro and exert pharmacological activity on NSCs.

Synergistic Inactivation of Bacteria Using a Combination of Erythorbyl Laurate and UV Type-A Light Treatment

This study evaluated the synergistic antimicrobial activity of erythorbyl laurate (EL) and UV type-A (UVA). To investigate the mode of synergism, changes in gene expression and bacterial inactivation activity were examined. Individual treatments with EL (10 mM) or UVA caused a 1.9- or 0.5-log CFU/ml reduction respectively, whereas EL/UVA co-treatment resulted in a 5.5-log CFU/ml reduction in Escherichia coli viable cell numbers. Similarly, treatment with either EL (2 mM) or UVA for 30 min resulted in a 2.8- or 0.1-log CFU/ml reduction in Listeria innocua, respectively, whereas combined treatment with both EL and UVA resulted in a 5.4-log CFU/ml reduction. Measurements of gene expression levels showed that EL and UVA treatment synergistically altered the gene expression of genes related to bacterial membrane synthesis/stress response. However, addition of 10–50-fold excess concentration of exogenous antioxidant compared to EL reduced the synergistic effect of EL and UVA by approximately 1 log. In summary, the results illustrate that synergistic combination of EL and UVA enhanced membrane damage independent of the oxidative stress damage induced by UVA and thus illustrate a novel photo-activated synergistic antimicrobial approach for the inactivation of both the Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Overall, this study illustrates mechanistic evaluation of a novel photochemical approach for food and environmental applications.

Impact of Gallic Acid on Gut Health: Focus on the Gut Microbiome, Immune Response, and Mechanisms of Action

Gallic acid (GA) is a naturally occurring polyphenol compound present in fruits, vegetables, and herbal medicines. According to previous studies, GA has many biological properties, including antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. GA and its derivatives have multiple industrial uses, such as food supplements or additives. Additionally, recent studies have shown that GA and its derivatives not only enhance gut microbiome (GM) activities, but also modulate immune responses. Thus, GA has great potential to facilitate natural defense against microbial infections and modulate the immune response. However, the exact mechanisms of GA acts on the GM and immune system remain unclear. In this review, first the physicochemical properties, bioavailability, absorption, and metabolism of GA are introduced, and then we summarize recent findings concerning its roles in gastrointestinal health. Furthermore, the present review attempts to explain how GA influences the GM and modulates the immune response to maintain intestinal health.

A holistic view of gallic acid-induced attenuation in colitis based on microbiome-metabolomics analysis

GA enema can treat UC by influencing microbiota-mediated metabolism.