Formation, characterization, and potential food application of rice bran wax oleogels: Expeller-pressed corn germ oil versus refined corn oil

Effectiveness of wax-bovine bone protein-grapeseed oil composite oleogels as a margarine substitute in cookies: Characteristics of fat substitutes and baking properties

In the present study, wax-bovine bone protein composite oleogels were blended with margarine (MG) in various proportions (25 %, 50 %, 75 %) to investigate their potential as MG replacements. The resulting oleogel-MG blends exhibited a uniform, tightly connected crystal structure and promoted the formation of the β' crystal polymorph. Differential scanning calorimetry revealed a higher melting temperature (above 45 °C) and earlier crystallization peak (~50 °C) for the oleogels and blends compared to MG. Rheological analysis indicated a reduction in solid viscoelasticity with the addition of oleogels. In the transition from SAOS (small amplitude oscillatory shear) to LAOS (large amplitude oscillatory shear), all the samples showed a linear to nonlinear transformationat 0.0628 %-628 % strain. When used in cookies, complete oleogel substitution resulted in a significant color difference (ΔE > 6) and poor sensory acceptability, while partial replacement (50-75 %) yielded cookies with desirable sensory properties. These findings collectively demonstrate the feasibility of employing partial oleogels as a fat substitute in baked goods.

Study on the foam properties of peanut oil body (POB)-based oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O) foamed emulsion gel: The key role played by the interface between the water phase and the outer oil phase

A novel POB-based O/W/O foamed emulsion gel was constructed. The mechanism by which POB strengthens the foamed emulsion gel was preliminarily explored by studying the microstructure and rheological properties, and the applications of POB in decoration and 3D printing were analyzed. The adsorption of POBs and their fragments might strengthen the interface between the water and internal oil phases, thereby increasing the yield stress of the system, which protected the O/W/O structure from being damaged during whipping, and formed a special foam structure where air-in-oil (A/O) structures and O/W/O structure coexist. Besides, adding POB promoted the overrun of the emulsion gel, and the maximum overrun rate was 68.6 %. Finally, POB-based O/W/O foamed emulsion gel exhibited good decoration and 3D printing performance and is expected to become a healthy and higher-quality foamed food in the future.

Changing the horizon of food frying from the use of liquid oil to semi-solid gel

Deep fat frying is the most adopted process of producing fried food products; it involves mass and heat transfer to form fried products with good colour, crispiness, flavour, taste, and texture. However, frequent consumption of these products is a concern due to higher oil content that poses threats to human health. Hence, there is a need to find an alternative frying medium for deep fat frying of food products to obtain fried products having lower fat content. The structuring of liquid oil to convert it into semi-solid gel by the process of oleogelation forms oleogel. The use of oleogel as a frying medium gives fried products with good oxidative, textural, and sensory attributes. The Oleogelator used in the formulation of oleogel plays a significant role in maintaining the stability of oleogel. An increase in the oleo gelator concentration decreases the oil uptake in the fried product. The superior product quality and high consumer acceptance of oleogel fried products indicate that oleogel is a potential frying medium. The scope of the present review is to cover the heat and mass transfer perspective of the deep fat frying process, factors responsible for oil uptake in fried products, formulation and components of semi-solid system, discussion on various characteristics of semi-solid system as frying medium, comparative assessment of oil uptake in food fried in oleogel and conventional oil and finally covering specific examples showing the efficacy of liquid oil oleogel as a frying medium.

Development and characterization of wax-bovine bone protein-grapeseed oil composite oleogels: Experimental and molecular simulation studies

Three new types of composite oleogel formulations were designed. Specifically, oleogels were prepared using 90% grapeseed oil as the oil phase and carnauba wax (CW)/beeswax/rice bran wax-bovine bone protein (BBP) as gelators. All samples were solid and had an oil-binding capacity of >90%. BBP addition considerably improved the waxy texture of the oleogel and had an important effect on the crystalline network. X-ray diffractometry indicated that BBP increased the β'-crystal content. All samples showed sol-gel thermodynamic behavior under temperature scanning. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and molecular docking confirmed the formation of noncovalent interactions dominated by van der Waals forces during the development of the oleogel. The optimal components of the three oleogels exhibited an excellent effect of slowing down the release of free fatty acids. This study could serve as a reference for the development and application of wax-protein as a new binary gelator in the food industry.

Effect of different oleogelators on physicochemical properties, oxidative stability and astaxanthin delivery of macadamia oil-based oleogels

Oleogels can be formed using different types of oleogelator, which lead to different end properties. In this study, four kinds of oleogelators, rice bran wax (RBW), monoglyceride stearate (MG), beeswax (BW), and a mixture of β-sitosterol and γ-oryzanol (SO) were used to prepare astaxanthin-loaded macadamia oil-based oleogels. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, polarized light microscopy, X-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, and dynamic shear rheometry were then used to evaluate the effects of the different oleogelators and astaxanthin on the physicochemical properties of the oleogels. The results showed that van der Waals forces played a key role in the formation of all the oleogels, while hydrogen bonding was also important for the SO- and MG-based oleogels. Moreover, astaxanthin addition did not change the crystal morphology and intramolecular interaction forces of the oleogels, but it did increase their oxidative stability and decrease their thermal stability, hardness, and oil-binding properties. In addition, the digestive behavior of the oleogels was evaluated using a three-stage in vitro gastrointestinal model. All the oleogelators significantly affected the lipolysis of the macadamia oil and the bioaccessibility of the astaxanthin, with the degree of lipolysis being positively correlated to the bioaccessibility. MG-based oleogels were the most effective at increasing the bioaccessibility of the astaxanthin.

Characterization of Beeswax and Rice Bran Wax Oleogels Based on Different Types of Vegetable Oils and Their Impact on Wheat Flour Dough Technological Behavior during Bun Making

Five varieties of vegetable oil underwent oleogelation with two types of wax as follows: beeswax (BW) and rice bran wax (RW). The oleogels were analyzed for their physicochemical, thermal, and textural characteristics. The oleogels were used in the bun dough recipe at a percentage level of 5%, and the textural and rheological properties of the oleogel doughs were analyzed using dynamic and empirical rheology devices such as the Haake rheometer, the Rheofermentometer, and Mixolab. The thermal properties of beeswax oleogels showed a melting peak at a lower temperature for all the oils used compared with that of the oleogels containing rice bran wax. Texturally, for both waxes, as the percentage of wax increased, the firmness of the oleogels increased proportionally, which indicates better technological characteristics for the food industry. The effect of the addition of oleogels on the viscoelastic properties of the dough was measured as a function of temperature. All dough samples showed higher values for G' (storage modulus) than those of G″ (loss modulus) in the temperature range of 20-90 °C, suggesting a solid, elastic-like behavior of all dough samples with the addition of oleogels. The influence of the beeswax and rice bran oleogels based on different types of vegetable oils on the thermo-mechanical properties of wheat flour dough indicated that the addition of oleogels in dough recipes generally led to higher dough stability and lower values for the dough development time and those related to the dough's starch characteristics. Therefore, the addition of oleogels in dough recipes inhibits the starch gelatinization process and increases the shelf life of bakery products.

Natural oleogelators for the formulation of oleogels by considering their rheological and textural perspective; a review

A well-known method for reducing or swapping out undesirable and controversial fats in food is oleogelation. To quantify the effects of droplets-particle inclusion on the textural aspects of gelled systems, a thorough understanding of rheological behavior of oleogels (OGs) is necessary. Otherwise stated, a rational grasp of rheological characterization is essential for food development, optimization, and processing (when touching or putting food into the mouth, rheological flow qualities influence our perception). This narrative review primarily intends to investigate rheological and textural characteristics of various oleogelator-based OGs, such as operative connection between hardness, distortion, stresses, and rheological parameters like viscosity, elasticity, and viscoelasticity, as well as flow behavior and recovery. Expanding oleogelators concentration and synergistic interactions between them increase robustness and moduli values, as compared to single oleogelators. However, given the lack of information on the connection between the OGs' macroscopic rheological characteristics and their microstructural characteristics, this review presents state-of-the-art overview of various oleogelator-based OGs, highlighting the importance of structure-rheology relationships of OGs to provide advanced knowledge on the development of innovative OGs.

Effects of drying method and oil type on edible polyunsaturated oleogels co-structured by hydroxylpropyl methyl cellulose and xanthan gum

The subtle balance between the interactions of polysaccharide molecules and the interactions of polysaccharide molecules with oil molecules is significantly important for developing polysaccharide-based polyunsaturated oleogels. Here, hydroxylpropyl methyl cellulose and xanthan gum were used to structure edible oleogels via emulsion-template methodology, while the effects of drying methods (hot-air drying (AD) and vacuum-freeze drying (FD)) and oil types (walnut, flaxseed and Moringa seed oil) on the structure, oil binding capacity (OBC), rheological properties, thermal behaviors and stability of oleogels were specially investigated. Compared with AD oleogels, FD oleogels exhibited significantly better OBC, enhanced gelation strength (G' value) and better capacity to holding oil after high temperature processing, which was attributed to the possibly increased oil-polysaccharide interactions. However, the weakened polysaccharide-polysaccharide interactions in FD oleogels failed in providing stronger physical interface or enough rigidity to restrict the migration of oil molecules. Polyunsaturated triacylglycerols in vegetable oils deeply participated in the construction of the network of AD oleogels through weak intermolecular non-covalent interactions, which in turn greatly changed the crystallization and melting behaviors of vegetables oils. In brief, this research may provide useful information for the development of polysaccharide-based polyunsaturated oil oleogels.

Oleogelation based on plant waxes: characterization and food applications

Fats contribute majorly to food flavour, mouthfeel, palatability, texture, and aroma. Though solid fats are used for food formulation due to the processing benefits over oils, their negative health effects should not be overlooked. Oleogelation is thus used to transform liquid oil into a gel which function like fats and provide the nutritional benefits of oils. Additionally, only food-grade gelators convert the oils into solid-like, self-standing, three-dimensional gel networks. Rice bran wax, candelilla wax, carnauba wax, and sunflower wax are mainly used plant waxes for formulating oleogels as a result of their low cost, availability, and excellent gelling ability. A comprehensive information about the wax based oleogels, their characteristics and applications is needed. The present review discusses the effect of different plant-based waxes on the properties of the oleogel formed. The article provides information on how the physical and chemical properties of waxes impact the oleogel properties such as oil binding capacity, critical concentration, rheological, thermal, textural, morphological, and oxidative stability. Moreover, the current and potential applications of oleogels in the food sector have also been covered this article.

Overview of the Sustainable Valorization of Using Waste and By-Products in Grain Processing

In an increasingly resource-constrained era, using waste and by-products from grain processing has a wide appeal. This is due to the nutritive value and economic aspects of this process and due to its compatibility with the trend towards more sustainable food systems. Following the fundamentals of circular economy, a current need is the effective utilization of grain waste and by-products for conversion into value-added products in the food industry. The aim of this study is twofold: (1) using bibliometrics and the literature found in various databases, we aim to understand the progress of valorizing grain waste and by-products in human nutrition. The literature within various databases, namely, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Elsevier Scopus, has been evaluated for its merits and values. (2) We aim to explore knowledge-based strategies by reviewing the literature concerning the possible use of grain waste and by-products for the food processing industry, reducing the burden on virgin raw materials. The review allowed us to unlock the latest advances in upcycling side streams and waste from the grain processing industry.

Impact of Fat Replacement by Using Organic-Candelilla-Wax-Based Oleogels on the Physicochemical and Sensorial Properties of a Model Cookie

Oleogelation is an alternative process to improve the nutritional properties of food by creating soft-matter structures with the same functionality as commercial fats (shortenings). In this study, oleogels were produced by adding organic candelilla wax at 3% (OC03), 6% (OC06), and 9% (OC09) to extra-virgin linseed oil, and then characterized by their physicochemical properties. Furthermore, the physicochemical and sensorial properties of five cookie formulations were evaluated. Organic candelilla wax influenced the oleogel formulations, giving higher values of color (L* and b*), texture, acidity index, and melting point. In the cookie formulations, the luminosity values decreased when the percentage of oleogel was increased; reddish trends were obtained (a* values) for the cookie where 70% of the fat was replaced by the oleogel (C70), and more yellow trends were obtained (b* values) for C100. The moisture content was higher in cookies with oleogels, but it was within quality limits. The percentage of fat migration was lower in cookies with a mixture of fats and oleogels. In terms of hardness, the substitution of oleogels resulted in softer cookies. In terms of the sensory evaluation, the most accepted cookie was C70. Therefore, this study demonstrates the possibility of using organic-candelilla-wax-based oleogels in a real food model rich in unsaturated fats.

Oleogels as a Fat Substitute in Food: A Current Review

Fats and oils in food give them flavor and texture while promoting satiety. Despite the recommendation to consume predominantly unsaturated lipid sources, its liquid behavior at room temperature makes many industrial applications impossible. Oleogel is a relatively new technology applied as a total or partial replacement for conventional fats directly related to cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and inflammatory processes. Some of the complications in developing oleogels for the food industry are finding structuring agents Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS), viable economically, and that do not compromise the oleogel palatability; thus, many studies have shown the different possibilities of applications of oleogel in food products. This review presents applied oleogels in foods and recent proposals to circumvent some disadvantages, as reaching consumer demand for healthier products using an easy-to-use and low-cost material can be intriguing for the food industry.

Crystallization Behavior and Physical Properties of Monoglycerides-Based Oleogels as Function of Oleogelator Concentration

Oleogels have been shown as a promising replacer of hydrogenated vegetable oil. Fatty acid glycerides, including some typical mono- and di-glycerides, were used to form oleogels. The concentration effects of fatty acid glycerides on the crystallization behavior and physical properties of oleogels were investigated by using different analysis techniques. The results showed that all the oleogels formed by saturated fatty acid glycerides (glyceryl monostearate (GMS), glyceryl monolaurate (GML), glycerol monocaprylate (GMC)) exhibited a solid-like behavior and were thermally reversible systems, while a higher amount of unsaturated fatty acid glycerides (monoolein (GMO), diolein (GDO)) were needed to form oleogels. The onset gelation concentration of GMS and GMC was found to be 2 wt% (w/w), while that of GML was 4 wt% by the inverted tube method. The crystallization results illustrated that the GMS and GMC formed small needle-like crystals with the presence of β and β' crystals, while GML formed large flake-like crystals with α crystals in oleogels, and faster cooling rates caused smaller crystals. GMS- and GMC-based oleogels had higher crystallinity, resulting in higher thermal stability and better mechanical properties than GML-based ones at the same monoglyceride (MAG) level. With the increasing MAG content, the oleogels showed a more compact three-dimensional network leading to higher mechanical properties and better thermal stability and resistance to deformations. Hence, MAG-based oleogels, especially GMC ones with medium chain fatty acid, could be a promising replacer for hydrogenation vegetable oils.

The Influence of Emulsifiers on the Physiochemical Behavior of Soy Wax/Rice Bran Oil-Based Oleogels and Their Application in Nutraceutical Delivery

This research evaluated the influence of stearic acid, sunflower lecithin, and sorbitan monooleate on soy wax (SYW)/rice bran oil (RBO)-based oleogels. The physiochemical behavior of oleogel samples was evaluated using colorimetry, microscopy, FTIR, mechanical, crystallization kinetics, X-ray diffraction, and a drug release investigation. The prepared oleogels were light yellow, and adding emulsifiers did not change their appearance. All oleogels showed an oil binding capacity of >98%, independent of emulsifier treatment. The surface topography revealed that emulsifiers smoothed the surface of the oleogels. Bright-field and polarized micrographs showed the presence of wax grains and needles. FTIR spectra indicated that oleogel samples had the same functional group diversity as the raw materials. The oleogel samples lacked a hydrogen-bonding peak. Hence, we postulated that non-covalent interactions were involved in the oleogel preparation. According to stress relaxation studies, the firmness and elastic component of oleogels were unaffected by emulsifiers. However, EML3 (oleogel containing sorbitan monooleate) showed lower relaxing characteristics than the others. EML3 exhibited the slowest crystallization profile. Due to its low d-spacing, EML3 was found to have densely packed crystal molecules and the largest crystallite size. The in vitro drug release studies showed that emulsifier-containing oleogels dramatically affected curcumin release. These results may help customize oleogels properties to adjust bioactive component release in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Oil content analysis of corn seeds using a hand-held Raman spectrometer and spectral peak decomposition algorithm

Rapid, non-destructive and reliable detection of the oil content of corn seeds is important for development of high-oil corn. However, determination of the oil content is difficult using traditional methods for seed composition analysis. In this study, a hand-held Raman spectrometer was used with a spectral peak decomposition algorithm to determine the oil contents of corn seeds. Mature and waxy Zhengdan 958 corn seeds and mature Jingke 968 corn seeds were analyzed. Raman spectra were obtained in four regions of interest in the embryo of the seed. After analysis of the spectra, a characteristic spectral peak for the oil content was identified. A Gaussian curve fitting spectral peak decomposition algorithm was used to decompose the characteristic spectral peak of oil at 1657 cm^-1. This peak was used to determine the Raman spectral peak intensity for the oil content in the embryo and differences in the oil contents among seeds of varying maturity and different varieties. This method is feasible and effective for detection of corn seed oil.

Determination of characteristic evaluation indexes for novel cookies prepared with wax oleogels

BACKGROUND

Wax-based oleogels showed better performance as a substitute for shortening in cookies, but the relationship between the structure and physical properties of wax oleogels and cookies quality has not been elucidated, which limit its further application. In this regard, the effect of structure and physical properties of wax oleogels on the quality of cookies was investigated, and the characteristic indexes for evaluating the quality of novel cookies prepared with wax oleogels were determined.

RESULTS

The results showed that oleogels with 5-9% proportion of rice bran wax (RBX) and candelilla wax (CDW) produced soft cookies with porous structure, desired spread and color. Compared with shortening, wax oleogels with lower solid fat content (SFC, 4.5-11%, 25 °C) and higher β' crystals (2795.7-11 671.3) produced cookies with similar hardness to that of shortening. Besides, the hardness of wax oleogel-based cookies depends more on the amount of crystals than crystal size. In the results, SFC, β' crystals, viscosity and elastic modulus (G') were determined to be the characteristic evaluation indexes for the quality of cookies prepared with wax oleogels. Cookies with wax oleogels with higher SFC, β' crystal, viscosity and G' are softer.

CONCLUSION

The quality of novel cookies prepared with wax oleogels can be controlled by the SFC and β' crystal of wax oleogels. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

An Update Regarding the Bioactive Compound of Cereal By-Products: Health Benefits and Potential Applications

Cereal processing generates around 12.9% of all food waste globally. Wheat bran, wheat germ, rice bran, rice germ, corn germ, corn bran, barley bran, and brewery spent grain are just a few examples of wastes that may be exploited to recover bioactive compounds. As a result, a long-term strategy for developing novel food products and ingredients is encouraged. High-value compounds like proteins, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, ferulic acid, and other phenols, tocopherols, or β-glucans are found in cereal by-products. This review aims to provide a critical and comprehensive overview of current knowledge regarding the bioactive compounds recovered from cereal by-products, emphasizing their functional values and potential human health benefits.

Effects of Sorbitan Monostearate and Stearyl Alcohol on the Physicochemical Parameters of Sunflower-Wax-Based Oleogels

A rising health concern with saturated fatty acids allowed researchers to look into the science of replacing these fats with unsaturated fatty acids. Oleogelation is a technique to structure edible oil using gelators. The present study looked for the effect of solid emulsifiers; namely, sorbitan monostearate (SP) and stearyl alcohol (SA), on the physicochemical parameters of oleogels. All the oleogels were formulated using 5% sunflower wax (SW) in sunflower oil (SO). The formulated oleogels displayed irregular-shaped wax crystals on their surface. The bright-field and polarized microscopy showed the fiber/needle network of wax crystals. Formulations consisting of 10 mg (0.05% w/w) of both the emulsifiers (SA10 and SP10) in 20 g of oleogels displayed the appearance of a dense wax crystal network. The SP and SA underwent co-crystallization with wax molecules, which enhanced crystal growth and increased the density and size of the wax crystals. The XRD and FTIR studies suggested the presence of a similar β’ polymorph to that of the triacylglycerols’ arrangement. The incorporation of SA and SP in wax crystal packing might have resulted in a lower crystallization rate in SA10 and SP10. Evaluation of the thermal properties of oleogels through DSC showed better gel recurrence of high melting enthalpy. These formulations also displayed a sustained release of curcumin. Despite the variations in several properties (e.g., microstructures, crystallite size, thermal properties, and nutrient release), the emulsifiers did not affect the mechanical properties of the oleogel. The meager amounts of both the emulsifiers were able to modulate the nutrient release from the oleogels without affecting their mechanical properties in comparison to the control sample.

Relationship between the microstructure and physical properties of emulsifier based oleogels and cookies quality

In this paper, the correlation between microstructure and physical properties of emulsifier based oleogels and qualities of cookies, as well as the key factors affecting cookies hardness was studied by using four kinds of food-grade emulsifiers with different concentrations. Monoacylglycerol (MAG) and sorbitan monostearate (SPAN) cookies showed similar hardness and L*, a*, b* to those of shortening cookies, in the concentration range of 6-15% and 12-18%, respectively, and their cross sections are uniformly porous. The solid fat content and α crystals content of emulsifier based oleogels showed no significant effect on cookie hardness. Besides, oleogel cookies prepared with emulsifier gelators with higher hydrophile-lipophile balance value showed lower hardness. In the results, higher shear viscosity (at 25 °C) of emulsifier based oleogels were determined to be the key factor for softer cookies. This study provides theoretical support for the quality control of novel cookies with emulsifier based oleogels.

Evaluation of Structural Behavior in the Process Dynamics of Oleogel-Based Tender Dough Products

The current trend is represented by replacing solid fats with structured liquid oil while maintaining the plastic properties of food products. In this study, the behavior of refined sunflower oil structured with various agents (carnauba wax-CRW, β-sitosterol:beeswax-BS:BW, β-sitosterol:lecithin-BS:LEC, and glycerol monostearate-GM) was evaluated in the process dynamics of oleogel-based tender dough products. The oleogel with the mixture of β-sitosterol:beeswax (OG_BS:BW) displayed the highest capacity to retain oil inside the matrix with a percentage of oil loss as low as 0.05% and also had a significantly higher hardness (6.37 N) than the reference, a commercial margarine (MR—3.58 N). During cooling from 90 to 4 °C, the increase in oleogel’ viscosity results from oleogelator’s liquid–solid phase transition. As demonstrated by the frequency sweeps performed, storage modulus G′ was higher than loss modulus G″, no cross-over points were observed, and the strongest gel network was for the oleogel with glycerol monostearate (OG_GM). Regarding the dough, the sample prepared using the oleogel with carnauba wax (D_CRW) showed the strongest hardness (92.49 N) compared to the reference (D_MR—21.80 N). All the oleogel-containing doughs had elastic solid-like behavior. The samples with margarine (D_MR) and the mixture of β-sitosterol:lecithin (D_BS:LEC) presented the lowest value of both moduli of G’ and G” during the frequency sweep. The biscuits formulated with commercial margarine (B_MR) registered a hardness of 28.74 N. Samples with oleogels showed a specific tenderness for tender dough products, thus being suitable for this type of product (11.22–20.97 N).

Microwave resonator can help to predict oxidative stability in C18-based vegetable oils

Effects of moisture content, degree of oxidation, degree of unsaturation of fatty acid compositions in C18-based edible oils were determined by a microwave resonator in the range of 0-4.4 GHz. Moisture content and degree of oxidation in corn oil made difference in signal intensity at 1.7-1.9 GHz and 1.0-1.2 GHz, respectively without uniform trend in signal intensity. Degree of unsaturation of C18-based edible oils including corn, sesame, soybean, olive, perilla, and flaxseed oils provided difference in 3.0-3.1 GHz with a dependent manner of degree of unsaturation. Average of signal intensity (ASI) in 3.0-3.1 GHz had high correlation (R² > 0.93) to the degree of unsaturation in edible oils. Oils with high oleic acid had relatively low ASI while those with high linolenic acid had high ASI value. Oxidative stability of C18-based edible oils can be categorized successfully without fatty acid analysis using a microwave resonator.

Effect of ultrasound on the structural characteristics and oxidative stability of walnut oil oleogel coated with soy protein isolate-phosphatidylserine

In this study, the three-dimensional network system formed by rice bran wax (RBW) was used as the internal structure, and the external structure formed by soybean protein isolate (SPI) and phosphatidylserine (PS) was added on the basis of the internal structure to prepare walnut oil oleogel (SPI-PS-WOG). Ultrasonic treatment was applied to the mixed solution to make SPI-PS-WOG, on the basis, the effects of ultrasonic treatment on SPI-PS-WOG were investigated. The results showed that both β and β' crystalline forms were present in all SPI-PS-WOG samples. When the ultrasonic power was 450 W, the first weight loss peak in the thermogravimetric (TGA) curve appeared at 326 °C, which was shifted to the right compared to the peak that occurred when the ultrasonic power was 0 W, indicating that the thermal stability of the SPI-PS-WOG was improved by the ultrasonic treatment. Moreover, when the ultrasonic power was 450 W, the oil holding capacity (OHC) reached 95.3 %, which was the best compared with other groups. Both confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that the ultrasonic treatment of appropriate power succeeded in making the SPI-PS-WOG samples more evenly dispersed in the internal structure and denser in the external structure. In terms of oxidative stability, it was found that the peroxide value of SPI-PS-WOG remained at 9.8 mmol/kg oil for 50 days under 450 W ultrasonic power treatment, which was significantly improved compared with liquid walnut oil (WO). These results provide a new idea for the preparation of oleogels, and also lay a theoretical foundation for the application of ultrasonic treatment in oleogels.

Rheological and Physicochemical Properties of Oleogel with Esterified Rice Flour and Its Suitability as a Fat Replacer

The objectives of this study were to produce oleogel using esterified rice flour with citric acid (ERCA), to evaluate physicochemical and rheological properties of oleogels, and to investigate their suitability as a fat replacer. Rice flour was esterified with citric acid (30%, w/w) to produce ERCA. Emulsions and oleogels were prepared with different concentrations (0, 5, 10, and 15%, w/w) of ERCA. In the steady shear rheological analysis, it was found that the values of apparent viscosity (ηa, 100) and consistency index (K) of emulsions were significantly increased by increasing the concentrations of ERCA. Oleogels were prepared with different concentrations (0, 5, 10, and 15%, w/w) of ERCA. All oleogels showed a hydrophobic carbonyl bond in the Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra. The peaks on new hydrogen bonds and amorphous regions, which did not appear in oleogel prepared with 0% ERCA, were observed at 3300–3400 cm−1 and 1018 cm−1, respectively, in oleogels prepared with ERCA. With the increase in ERCA concentrations in oleogels, oil loss values were significantly decreased. In a time-dependent test, it was found that all oleogels exhibited thixotropic properties. The frequency sweep test revealed that storage modulus (G′), loss modulus (G″), and complex viscosity (η*) values of oleogels were elevated with an increase in the concentration of ERCA. Oleogels prepared with 15% ERCA exhibited the lowest peroxide, p-Anisidine, and Total Oxidation(TOTOX) values. The addition of oleogels to cookies did not considerably affect appearance. However, it increased the content of unsaturated fatty acid. These results indicate that oleogels prepared with ERCA can be used as a fat replacer in food industry.

Effect of flaxseed gum on the brittleness of oleogels based on candelilla wax

The present study aimed to decrease the brittleness of flaxseed oleogels based on candelilla wax (CLW) in combination with flaxseed gum (FG). Effects of flaxseed gum concentrations (0–0.4%) on the characteristics of flaxseed oleogels including oil binding capacity, textural, thermal, and rheological properties, and crystal polymorphisms were investigated. Higher concentrations (≥0.2%) of FG significantly decreased the textural parameters (e.g., hardness, fracturability) of oleogels (p < 0.05), suggesting that FG could decrease brittleness. Rheological results indicated that all flaxseed oleogels exhibited solid-like characteristics because the elastic modulus was larger than the viscous modulus. The elastic modulus of flaxseed oleogels presented a maximum value at 0.1% gum concentration. Any increase in gum concentration beyond this concentration decreased the elastic modulus. Increasing FG concentration up to 0.4% decreased the enthalpy of flaxseed oleogels during the melting process. The β′-polymorphic form is an orthorhombic perpendicular (O_⊥) subcell structure. Similar β′ crystal forms were observed among flaxseed oleogels, indicating that FG did not affect them negatively. The study showed that the physical properties of flaxseed oleogels based on CLW could be significantly changed by FG addition. These results provided a deeper comprehension of the novel system, which should be considered a new way to obtain healthy fats with better plasticity for food applications.

Oleogels using candelilla wax as a gelling agent and flaxseed gum as a structural modifier: preparation and characterization.

Effect of fatty acid composition of vegetable oils on crystallization and gelation kinetics of oleogels based on natural wax

This study aimed to understand the effect of fatty acid composition and viscosity of vegetable oils on network formation mechanism and physical properties of oleogels. To this purpose, 12 oleogels were prepared, by choosing 6 seed oils and two waxes, at a fixed oleogelator concentration (6%). The modified Avrami model correctly describes the crystallization profile (R² > 0.98) and the oil type did not affect the Avrami index that ranged from 1.00 to 1.43. Independently from oleogelator, rice and hemp seed oils followed a 3-D network formation mechanism, while almond oil a 2-D mechanism. The strength and yield stress of carnauba wax oleogels increased with increasing saturated fatty acid amount, while in beeswax-based oleogels a more interconnected structure was associated with the length of the saturated fatty acid chain. Thus, the oleogels formation mechanism was closely related to the chemical composition of the solvent, even in highly monounsaturated or polyunsaturated oils.

Variations in Microstructural and Physicochemical Properties of Candelilla Wax/Rice Bran Oil-Derived Oleogels Using Sunflower Lecithin and Soya Lecithin

Candelilla wax (CW) is a well-known oleogelator that displays tremendous oil-structuring potential. Lecithin acts as a crystal modifier due to its potential to alter the shape and size of the fat crystals by interacting with the wax molecules. The proposed work is an attempt to understand the impact of differently sourced lecithin, such as sunflower lecithin (SFL) and soya lecithin (SYL), on the various physicochemical properties of CW and rice bran oil (RBO) oleogels. The yellowish-white appearance of all samples and other effects of lecithin on the appearance of oleogels were initially quantified by using CIELab color parameters. The microstructural visualization confirmed grainy and globular fat structures of varied size, density, packing, and brightness. Samples made by using 5 mg of SFL (Sf5) and 1 mg of SYL (Sy1) in 20 g showed bright micrographs consisting of fat structures with better packing that might have been due to the improvised crystallinity in the said samples. The FTIR spectra of the prepared samples displayed no significant differences in the molecular interactions among the samples. Additionally, the slow crystallization kinetics of Sf5 and Sy1 correlated with better crystal packing and fewer crystal defects. The DSC endotherm displayed two peaks for melting corresponding to the melting of different molecular components of CW. However, all the formulations showed a characteristic crystallization peak at ~40 °C. The structural reorganization and crystal growth due to the addition of lecithin affected its mechanical property significantly. The spreadability test among all prepared oleogels showed better spreadable properties for Sf5 and Sy1 oleogel. The inclusion of lecithin in oleogels has demonstrated an enhancement in oleogel properties that allows them to be included in various food products.

Application of OXITEST for Prediction of Shelf-Lives of Selected Cold-Pressed Oils

Introduction: Due to the enhanced awareness of consumers concerning healthy foods, homemade expeller-pressed oils have become popular worldwide. However, an extended storage period may lead to oxidization of the oil and exposure to hazardous byproducts by consumers.

Methods: In this study, 10 pressed oil samples prepared from common oilseeds using a small-scale expeller oil press were analyzed by OXITEST with a sample amount of 5 g of oil and an oxygen pressure of 800 kPa under accelerated conditions for shelf-life projections. The oil properties were investigated, including the recovery, smoke point, acid value, iodine value, “fatty acid composition, and contents of pigments and tocopherols”.

Results: The autoxidation reaction of various expeller-pressed oils under an accelerated testing system followed zero-order Arrhenius kinetics (R² > 0.99). Shelf-lives of the pressed oils at 25°C were estimated by extrapolation to range 105~1,089 days. The obtained shelf-lives were significantly correlated with log induction period (IP) values (r > 0.81, p < 0.05) and unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) (r < −0.69, p < 0.05), but not with the iodine value, acid value, or smoke point. Scatter diagrams between shelf-lives and UFAs suggested that these pressed oils could be grouped by two linear regression curves (r > 0.98, p < 0.05). The predictive equations using multiple linear regression are presented herein, with predictor variables of UFAs and an unspecified item involving potential influencing factors such as tocopherol contents (r > 0.88, p < 0.05).

Conclusions: Our findings first revealed that the UFA portion was partially correlated with the shelf-lives of selected expeller-pressed seed oils as estimated by the OXITEST. The derived equations can be applied for shelf-life predictions of expeller-pressed oils stored under dark ambient conditions based on the fatty acid profile.

Ultrasound-assisted gelation of β-carotene enriched oleogels based on candelilla wax-nut oils: Physical properties and in-vitro digestion analysis

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Candelilla wax mix with peanut, pine nut and walnut oils can form oleogels.

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Ultrasound increased G’, G’’, firmness and oil-binding capacity of oleogels.

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Ultrasound treatment improved the protection of β-carotene in oleogels.

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Ultrasound reduced the amount of β-carotene released during intestinal digestion.

This study investigated the effects of high-intensity ultrasound (HIU, 95 W, 10 s) on the physical properties, stability and in vitro digestion of β-carotene enriched oleogels. Candelilla wax (3 wt%) and nut oils (peanut, pine nut and walnut oil) with or without β-carotene were used to form oleogels. HIU improved the storage modules (G’) of peanut, pine nut and walnut oleogels without β-carotene from 11048.43 ± 728.85 Pa, 38111.67 ± 11663.98 Pa and 21921.13 ± 1011.55 Pa to 13502.40 ± 646.54 Pa, 75322.47 ± 9715.25 Pa and 48480.97 ± 4109.64 Pa, respectively. Moreover, HIU reduced oil loss of peanut, pine nut and walnut oleogels without β-carotene from 23.98 ± 2.58%, 17.14 ± 0.69% and 24.66 ± 1.57% to 17.60 ± 1.10%, 13.84 ± 0.74% and 18.72 ± 3.47%, respectively. X-ray diffraction patterns showed that HIU did not change the form of the crystal (β-polymorphic and β’-polymorphic) but increased the crystal intensity. Polarized light microscope images indicated that all oleogels showed more visible crystals after HIU. After 120 d of storage, HIU decreased the degradation of β-carotene for peanut oil and walnut oil samples (the contents of β-carotene in peanut and walnut oleogels without HIU after 120 d of storage were 897 ± 2 μg/g and 780 ± 1 μg/g, respectively, and those of sonicated samples were 1070 ± 4 μg/g and 932 ± 1 μg/g, respectively). Furthermore, HIU reduced the release of β-carotene in intestinal digestion. In conclusion, HIU could improve the functional properties of wax-nut oils oleogels and their β-carotene enriched oleogels.

Effect of pH and Pea Protein: Xanthan Gum Ratio on Emulsions with High Oil Content and High Internal Phase Emulsion Formation

Electrostatic interaction between protein and polysaccharides could influence structured liquid oil stability when emulsification is used for this purpose. The objective of this work was to structure sunflower oil forming emulsions and High Internal Phase Emulsions (HIPEs) using pea protein (PP) and xanthan gum (XG) as a stabilizer, promoting or not their electrostatic attraction. The 60/40 oil-in-water emulsions were made varying the pH (3, 5, and 7) and PP:XG ratio (4:1, 8:1, and 12:1). To form HIPEs, samples were oven-dried and homogenized. The higher the pH, the smaller the droplet size (Emulsions: 15.60-43.96 µm and HIPEs: 8.74-20.38 µm) and the oil release after 9 weeks of storage at 5 °C and 25 °C (oil loss < 8%). All systems had weak gel-like behavior, however, the values of viscoelastic properties (G' and G″) increased with the increment of PP:XG ratio. Stable emulsions were obtained at pHs 5 and 7 in all PP:XG ratios, and at pH 3 in the ratio 4:1. Stable HIPEs were obtained at pH 7 in the ratios PP:XG 4:1, 8:1, and 12:1, and at pH 5 at PP:XG ratio 4:1. All these systems presented different characteristics that could be exploited for their application as fat substitutes.

Carboxymethyl cellulose/okara protein influencing microstructure, rheological properties and stability of O/W emulsions

BACKGROUND

The role of protein-polysaccharide interactions and their mixtures has been a vital factor affecting the formation and stability of food emulsions. Okara protein (OP), which is extracted from the by-product of soybean processing, has received much attention because of its abundant sources and potential attributes with respect to food formulation. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), a well-known food-grade polysaccharide additive, has been widely utilized in the protein-polysaccharide system, whereas, among the proteins, the role of OP has not yet been explored.

RESULTS

The present study first assessed the ζ-potential and hydrodynamic diameter of aqueous mixtures containing OP (1.0 wt%) and CMC (0-0.5 wt%), followed by the investigation of OP-CMC mixtures stabilized O/W emulsions. As CMC increased, oil droplet size, surface protein adsorption, apparent viscosity and storage modulus increased, whereas the loss tangent decreased.

CONCLUSION

CMC resulted in emulsion destabilization compared to emulsions without CMC, whereas a higher concentration of CMC promoted emulsion stability against creaming for emulsions in the presence of CMC. The results provide information with respect to OP and CMC being incorporated into food formulations and also strengthen our understanding of the related mechanism, in addition to facilitating the further utilization of OP. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Tailoring the Structure of Lipids, Oleogels and Fat Replacers by Different Approaches for Solving the Trans-Fat Issue-A Review

The issue of the adverse effects of trans-fatty acids has become more transparent in recent years due to researched evidence of their link with coronary diseases, obesity or type 2 diabetes. Apart from conventional techniques for lipid structuring, novel nonconventional approaches for the same matter, such as enzymatic interesterification, genetic modification, oleogelation or using components from nonlipid origins such as fat replacers have been proposed, leading to a product with a healthier nutritional profile (low in saturated fats, zero trans fats and high in polyunsaturated fats). However, replacing conventional fat with a structured lipid or with a fat mimetic can alternate some of the technological operations or the food quality impeding consumers' acceptance. In this review, we summarize the research of the different existing methods (including conventional and nonconventional) for tailoring lipids in order to give a concise and critical overview in the field. Specifically, raw materials, methods for their production and the potential of food application, together with the properties of new product formulations, have been discussed. Future perspectives, such as the possibility of bioengineering approaches and the valorization of industrial side streams in the framework of Green Production and Circular Economy in the production of tailored lipids, have been highlighted. Additionally, a schematic diagram classifying conventional and nonconventional techniques is proposed based on the processing steps included in tailored lipid production as a convenient and straightforward tool for research and industry searching for healthy, sustainable and zero trans edible lipid system alternatives.

Roles of gelator type and gelation technology on texture and sensory properties of cookies prepared with oleogels

In this paper, different types of oleogels were prepared by five gelators including hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC), monoacylglycerol (MAG), sodium stearyl lactate (SSL), rice bran wax (RBW) and beeswax (BW), and their applications in cookies were compared. Texture, microstructure, and colour results showed that MAG, RBW and shortening based cookies had similar hardness, porous structure, and L*, a*, b*. MAG and RBW exhibited excellent rheological properties similar to shortening. Regarding the consumer sensory evaluation of cookies, RBW, MAG and shortening had similar scores of 3.9, 4.3 and 4.1, respectively. For wax-based oleogels, the higher the content of β' crystal and solid fat content (SFC), the lower the hardness of cookies, but the cookies hardness of emulsifier based oleogels do not depend on β' content and SFC. This paper confirmed the best gelators for cookies, and provided a reference for developing the oleogels to match the quality of shortening in cookies.

Unlocking the potential of minimally processed corn germ oil and high oleic soybean oil to prepare oleogels for bakery application

In this study, the influence of sunflower wax (SFX) concentration (1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 wt%) on the properties of oleogels prepared using expeller-pressed corn germ oil (EPC) or high oleic soybean oil (EPS) was comprehensively investigated. Overall, oleogels can be prepared from both EP oils at an SFX level ≥3 wt%. The strength of oleogels depends on SFX concentration. EPS oleogels had better rheological properties and a higher amount of platelet-like crystals than EPC oleogels. The characteristics of cookies prepared with both oleogels were evaluated and compared to cookies prepared with commercial shortening. The lipid distribution in the cookies as visualized by CLSM suggested that EPS oleogels with a 5 or 7 wt% SFX had a greater possibility of replacing commercial shortening as they exhibited even lipid distribution which enabled good air-incorporation and air retention abilities. This research provides a foundation for developing healthy bakery products by using minimally processed oil based oleogels.

Quantifications of Oleocolloid Matrices Made of Whey Protein and Oleogels

Consumer demand for high protein content and plant-based fat has necessitated novel approaches to healthy food products. In response to this need, oleogels (OG) (structured liquid oils) emerged as a possible means of not only replacing saturated and trans fats but also delivering food protein. Nevertheless, an in-depth view of the structure of networks made of OG and protein is deficient. Hence, the objective of this study is developing oleocolloid (OC) (whey protein and rice bran wax OG) and hydro-oleocolloid (HOC) (OC + water) matrices with varying protein content (2.5–7.5%) to characterize their structural properties. Thermal analysis of the matrices via differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) documented the effects of hydrophobic interactions on the protein structure and its stability. Whey protein denaturation temperature increased from 74.9 °C to 102.8 °C in the presence of high oleic soybean oil. The effects of vegetable oil on WPI structure was also verified by FTIR spectroscopy. Data analysis revealed slight structural changes of the WPI secondary structure in the hydrophobic oil medium and the α-helix and β-sheet proportion in the emulsion medium was significantly altered. Similar analysis was performed in OC and HOC networks to quantify possible interactions between protein and rice bran wax. Results indicated that the protein was denatured during the thermal and mechanical conditions required for the oleogelation process, while it did not affect the systems’ solid fat content (SFC) and polymorphic patterns of the oleogels. However, DSC analysis showed different onset of melting for OC and HOC samples due to colloidal interactions between the protein and the lipid phase. The role of these chemistry was confirmed by microscopy analyses where OC and HOC matrices displayed notably different microstructural properties. The observed differences in the structural properties between OC and HOC matrices indicate the different colloidal interactions mediated by oleogelation process and the liquid medium type (oil vs. emulsion).