Fate of acrylamide during coffee roasting and in vitro digestion assessed with carbon 14- and carbon 13-labeled materials

Acrylamide, hydroxymethylfurfural and furfural in ready-to-eat foods consumed by child population: Presence, risk assessment and future perspectives

Food intake contributes to adequate growth and neurodevelopment of children. Ready-to-eat foods, frequently consumed by this population, are sources of acrylamide (AA), hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and furfural (FF). In this sense, a review of the AA, HMF, and FF presence in ready-to-eat foods was evaluated through a systematic search to infer the risk of exposure in the child population. About 75.8%, 24.2%, and 21% of the studies found AA, HMF, and FF in ready-to-eat foods, respectively. AA is predominant in processed and ultra-processed foods, while HMF and FF are commonly found in fruit-based foods. Only 17.7% of the studies assessed the children's risk of exposure, based on the contaminant concentration in ready-to-eat food and not after gastrointestinal digestion, a more realistic measure. Therefore, with the obtained information and found gaps, it is expected that new strategies will be proposed to assess the vulnerability of the child population to these processing contaminants.

Acrylamide and HMF occurrence and bioaccessibility in instant coffee and coffee substitutes. A study on isolated and milk-combined beverages

This research evaluated the occurrence and bioaccessibility of acrylamide and HMF in commercial instant coffees (IC) and coffee substitutes (CS), considering both isolated consumption and combination with milk. There were no significant differences in acrylamide content between IC and CS samples (median: 589 vs. 671 µg/kg), but higher variability was reported for CS, probably due to their varied composition (roasted cereals, nuts, honey, dehydrated fruits, and/or chicory). Acrylamide level were always below the EU benchmark for each category. HMF contents were similar between both groups (1354-5127 mg/kg for IC and 735-7134 mg/kg for CS; median: 2890 vs. 2960 mg/kg), with no clear ingredient relationship. Since IC consumption by the Spanish population is ten times higher than that of CS, exposure to acrylamide and HMF was higher from IC (6.8 vs. 1.07 ng/kg body weight/day for acrylamide; 39.1 vs. 4.2 µg/kg body weight/day for HMF). The standardized in vitro gastrointestinal digestion protocol (INFOGEST) was used. The gastrointestinal process reduced the bioaccessibility of acrylamide up to 27.2 % in IC and to 22.4 % in CS, regardless of the presence of milk. HMF bioaccessibility from IC significantly dropped after the gastrointestinal digestion, whereas it greatly increased for CS. The presence of milk did not affect HMF bioaccessibility. These results highlight the importance of assessing food bioaccessibility in typical consumption scenarios, providing a holistic view and a realistic evaluation of the potential risks associated with acrylamide and HMF exposure in the diet.

Insights into acrylamide and furanic compounds in coffee with a focus on roasting methods and additives

Roasting is necessary for bringing out the aroma and flavor of coffee beans, making coffee one of the most consumed beverages. However, this process also generates a series of toxic compounds, including acrylamide and furanic compounds (5-hydroxymethylfurfural, furan, 2-methylfuran, 3-methylfuran, 2,3-dimethylfuran, and 2,5-dimethylfuran). Furthermore, not much is known about the formation of these compounds in emerging coffee formulations containing alcohol and sugars. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of roasting time and degree on levels of acrylamide and furanic compounds in arabica coffee using fast and slow roasting methods. The fast and slow roasting methods took 5.62 min and 9.65 min, respectively, and reached a maximum of 210 °C to achieve a light roast. For the very dark roast, the coffee beans were roasted for 10.5 min and the maximum temperature reached 245 °C. Our findings showed that the levels of acrylamide (375 ± 2.52 μg kg-1) and 5-HMF (194 ± 11.7 mg kg-1) in the slow-roasted coffee were 35.0 % and 17.4 % lower than in fast-roasted coffee. Furthermore, light roast coffee had significantly lower concentrations of acrylamide and 5-HMF than very dark roast, with values of 93.7 ± 7.51 μg kg-1 and 21.3 ± 10.3 mg kg-1, respectively. However, the levels of furan and alkylfurans increased with increasing roasting time and degree. In this study, we also examined the concentrations of these pollutants in new coffee formulations consisting of alcohol-, sugar-, and honey-infused coffee beans. Formulations with honey and sugar resulted in higher concentrations of 5-HMF, but no clear trend was observed for acrylamide. On the other hand, formulations with honey had higher concentrations of furan and alkylfurans. These results indicate that optimizing roasting time and temperature might not achieve the simultaneous reduction of all the pollutants. Additionally, sugar- and honey-infused coffee beans are bound to have higher furanic compounds, posing a higher health risk.

Processing parameters in breadmaking and bioaccessibility of acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural

This study aimed to evaluate the fate in digestive steps, bioaccessibility and diffusion of acrylamide (AA) and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) in bread samples produced under different processing parameters. AA and 5-HMF were determined in every sample ready-to-eat, after every digestion step and in the digested after crossing the dialysis membrane. The contaminants were extracted by QuEChERS method and determined by HPLC-PDA. Doubling fermentation time (from 60 to 120 min) increased the level of AA by 1.2-fold, and it decreased the level of 5-HMF by 1.4-fold. A combination of 60 min fermentation and 20 min baking led to the lowest levels of AA (1.71 mg/kg) and 5-HMF (0.50 mg/kg). There was no increase in AA level in the gastric stage however, the 5-HMF level increased. Both contaminant levels had increased in the intestinal stage. This fact showed that the determination of the contaminants in the ready-to-eat product did not reflect their actual bioaccessibility because the digestive enzymes and pH variation may affect the release and detection of AA and 5-HMF accumulated in the baking stage. The initial levels of 5-HMF were correlated to the baking time, and initial levels of AA were correlated to the fermentation time. From the bioaccessible levels of AA and 5-HMF, approximately 90 % (5 mg/kg) and 100 % (6.5 mg/kg) crossed the dialysis membrane respectively. Initial and bioaccessible levels of AA were above the security recommendations for bread (50 µg/kg), which is a concern considering the daily consumption of this food. This study showed that focusing on a combination of processing parameters could be a promising strategy to decrease the bioaccessibility of both contaminants in bread.

Two decades of research in dietary acrylamide: What do we know today

After nearly two decades since acrylamide was first raised as a potential safety issue in foods, significant progress has been made in understanding its formation during cooking, how to reduce levels in the most concerned foods, and the possible cancer risk to humans. Despite the huge wealth of knowledge gathered on this topic over the past years, a few new discoveries in occurrence, mitigation, analysis and risk assessment are worthy to note. This short review highlights the salient novelties pertaining to acrylamide, particularly in the areas of formation & analysis, existing and possible future regulations in the European Union, and finally considerations that may lead to possibly revisiting the toxicity of acrylamide and the main metabolite, glycidamide.

Acrylamide bioaccessibility in potato and veggie chips. Impact of in vitro colonic fermentation on the non-bioaccessible fraction

Potato-based products contribute largely to the daily intake of acrylamide. In addition to potato crisps, the European Commission has included veggie crisps in the list of foods that should be monitored for their acrylamide content. In the present study, acrylamide content in potato and veggie chips (sweet potato, beetroot and carrot) and their bioaccessibility after in vitro digestion was assessed. The non-bioaccessible fraction was also submitted to in vitro fermentation under colonic conditions. Faecal samples from volunteers of three age groups (children, adolescents and adults) were used to evaluate the microbiota effect on the acrylamide availability. Sweet potato chips exhibited the highest acrylamide content (2342 µg/kg), followed by carrot (1279 µg/kg), beetroot (947 µg/kg) and potato chips (524 µg/kg). After in vitro digestion, acrylamide bioaccessibility was significantly lower in veggie chips (59.7-60.4 %) than in potato chips (71.7 %). Potato and sweet potato chips showed the significantly lowest acrylamide content in the non-bioaccessible fraction (22.8 and 24.1 %, respectively) as compared with beetroot chips (28.4 %). After the fermentation step, acrylamide percentage in the soluble fraction of veggie chips ranged from 43.03 to 71.89 %, the highest values being observed in sweet potato chips fermented with microbiota from children. This fact would involve that the acrylamide was released from the non-bioaccessible fractions by the microbiota. These findings point out that the levels of potentially absorbable acrylamide after the complete gastrointestinal process could be modulated by both the food matrix composition and the microbiota. These factors should be further considered for a more precise risk assessment of dietary acrylamide in humans.

Acrylamide in widely consumed foods - a review

Acrylamide (AA) is considered genotoxic, neurotoxic and a 'probable human carcinogen'. It is included in group 2 A of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). The formation of AA occurs when starch-based foods are subjected to temperatures higher than 120 °C in an atmosphere with very low water content. The aim of this review is to shed light on the toxicological aspects of AA, showing its regulatory evolution, and describing the most interesting mitigation techniques for each food category involved, with a focus on compliance with EU legislation in the various classes of consumer products of industrial origin in Europe.

Artificial Intelligence in Fractional-Order Systems Approximation with High Performances: Application in Modelling of an Isotopic Separation Process

This paper presents a solution for the modelling, implementation and simulation of the fractional-order process of producing the enriched 13C isotope, through the chemical exchange between carbamate and carbon dioxide. To achieve the goal of implementation and simulation of the considered process, an original solution for the approximation of fractional-order systems at the variation of the system’s differentiation order is proposed, based on artificial intelligence methods. The separation process has the property of being strongly non-linear and also having fractional-order behaviour. Consequently, in the implementation of the mathematical model of the process, the theory associated with the fractional-order system’s domain has to be considered and applied. For learning the dynamics of the structure parameters of the fractional-order part of the model, neural networks, which are associated with the artificial intelligence domain, are used. Using these types of approximations, the simulation and the prediction of the produced 13C isotope concentration dynamics are made with high accuracy. In order to prove the efficiency of the proposed solutions, a comparation between the responses of the determined model and the experimental responses is made. The proposed model implementation is made based on using four trained neural networks. Moreover, in the final part of the paper, an original method for the online identification of the separation process model is proposed. This original method can identify the process of fractional differentiation order variation in relation to time, a phenomenon which is quite frequent in the operation of the real separation plant. In the last section of the paper, it is proven that artificial intelligence methods can successfully sustain the system model in all the scenarios, resulting in the feasible premise of designing an automatic control system for the 13C isotope concentration, a method which can be applied in the case of other industrial applications too.

Superheated steam processing: An emerging technology to improve food quality and safety

Heat processing is one of the most efficient strategies used in food industry to improve quality and prolong shelf life. However, conventional processing methods such as microwave heating, burning charcoal treatment, boiling, and frying are energy-inefficient and often lead to inferior product quality. Superheated steam (SHS) is an innovative technology that offers many potential benefits to industry and is increasingly used in food industry. Compared to conventional processing methods, SHS holds higher heat transfer coefficients, which can reduce microorganisms on surface of foodstuffs efficiently. Additionally, SHS generates a low oxygen environment, which prevents lipid oxidation and harmful compounds generation. Furthermore, SHS can facilitate development of desired product quality, such as protein denaturation with functional characteristics, proper starch gelatinization, and can also reduce nutrient loss, and improve the physicochemical properties of foodstuffs. The current work provides a comprehensive review of the impact of SHS on the nutritional, physicochemical, and safety properties of various foodstuffs including meat, fruits, and vegetables, cereals, etc. Additionally, it also provides food manufacturers and researchers with basic knowledge and practical techniques for SHS processing of foodstuffs, which may improve the current scope of SHS and transfer current food systems to a healthy and sustainable one.

Dietary exposure to acrylamide: A critical appraisal on the conversion of disregarded intermediates into acrylamide and possible reactions during digestion

The amount of acrylamide in asparagine rich thermally processed foods has been broadly monitored over the past two decades. Acrylamide exposure can be estimated by using the concentration of acrylamide found in foods and alternatively, biomarkers of exposure are correlated. A better estimation of dietary acrylamide exposure is crucial for a proper food safety assessment, regulations, and public health research. This review addresses the importance of the presence of neglected Maillard reaction intermediates found in foods, that may convert into acrylamide during digestion and the fate of acrylamide in the gastrointestinal tract as a reactive compound. Therefore, it is questioned in this review whether acrylamide concentration in ingested foods is directly correlated with the dietary exposure to acrylamide.

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Neglected Maillard reaction intermediates play role in acrylamide formation in gut.

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Exposure may increase when intermediates are converted into acrylamide in the gut.

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Nucleophiles cause elimination of acrylamide in the intestinal phase.

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The fate of acrylamide during digestion could be important for exposure estimation.

Comparative evaluation of acrylamide and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contents in Robusta coffee beans roasted by hot air and superheated steam

Although hot air (HA) is a conventional roasting medium for coffee beans, HA roasting is known to result in possible formation of toxic compounds, including acrolein, acrylamide and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Superheated steam (SHS) roasting is therefore proposed as an alternative means to alleviate the formation of these toxic compounds in roasted coffee beans. Robusta coffee beans were roasted either with HA or SHS in a fluidized bed roaster at 210-250 °C until the bean color reached the targeted roast levels. The contents of acrolein, acrylamide and 16 PAHs in the roasted beans were determined; only acrylamide and 5 PAHs were nevertheless found. SHS roasting interestingly resulted in lower acrylamide contents in dark-roasted beans; similar trend was noted in the beans medium-roasted at 250 °C. The contents of three-ring PAHs, namely fluorene, phenanthrene and anthracene, in dark-roasted beans were significantly lower upon SHS roasting at 250 °C.