Effect of gastrointestinal alterations mimicking elderly conditions on in vitro digestion of meat and soy proteins

Glycation-induced gel and digestive properties for 3D printing and conventional gels of myofibrillar protein from oyster (Crassostrea gigas)

Glycation has great potential to enhance protein gel properties. The purpose was to investigate the glycation of oyster myofibrillar protein (MP) with monosaccharides (glucose [Glu]) and oligosaccharides (dextran 5 [Dex5]) combined with scallop columns for 3D printing and conventional gels to elucidate the differences in gel properties (texture characteristics, water-holding capacity, cooking yield, cooking loss, thermal characteristic, and water distribution) and digestive properties (in vitro digestibility, degree of hydrolysis, and molecular weight distribution) between the two gels. The results demonstrated that Glu-modified oyster MP had the best gel and digestive properties. The digestibility in vitro of MP-Glu modified 3D printing and conventional gels increased by 17.1% and 11.88%, while the degree of hydrolysis increased by 12.19% and 10.62%, respectively. Hydrogen and disulfide bonds were determined to be the main intermolecular forces maintaining the protein gels, and all prepared gels conformed to the transitional foods in the International Dysphagia Diet Standardization Initiative (IDDSI). In vitro digestibility was significantly positively correlated with gel hardness, degree of hydrolysis, L*, ΔE*, WHC and cooking loss. This study could fully utilize the potential advantages of glycation modification and 3D printing technology, aiming to provide theoretical support for the development of shellfish 3D printing products with personalized needs for people with dysphagia.

The fermentation of whey protein and mulberry polyphenols by forming protein-phenolic adducts: Improved digestions

The impacts of forming adduct between whey protein (WP) and mulberry polyphenol (MP) on the digestion and fermentation of WP and MP were investigated using an in vitro model. The results showed that MP increased the in vitro antioxidant capacity of WP digestive products. After forming adduct the total extractable phenolic content of MP dropped from 440.20 mg GAE/g to 21.53 mg GAE/g. The total extractable phenolic content of WP-MP group decreased from 21.53 mg GAE/g to 11.77 mg GAE/g after the oral digestion, then slightly increased to 12.43 after the gastric digestion and continuously increased to 20.43 mg GAE/g after the intestinal digestion. Extractable individual phenolic compounts exhibited the similar tendency, in which cyandin-3-O-glucoside, cyandin-3-O-rutinoside, p-coumaric acid, quercetin and kaempferol were still detectable while protocatechuic and neochlorogenic acid increased after intestinal digestion of WP-MP adduct. Incorporation of MP inhibited the oral and gastric digestion but enhanced the intestinal digestion of WP, and the degree of hydrolysis of WP increased 9.70% after intestinal digestion compared to the control. The fermentation of non-dialyzable residue of WP-MP by gut flora decreased the pH value from 7.18 to 4.82 and increased the proliferation of beneficial bacteria and the production of short-chain fatty acids. These findings indicated that WP-MP adduct increased the digestion of WP and the bioaccessibility of MP, could improve the intestinal health and could be used as a new healthy food ingredient.

Effect of NaCl on the structure and digestive properties of heat-treated myofibrillar proteins

During meat processing, the quality of food and structure of meat proteins are affected by different processing technologies and addition of raw and auxiliary materials. Different meat products are treated with varying processing temperatures and NaCl content, changing the protein molecular structure. This study aimed to determine impact of heating temperature (40-115 °C) and NaCl concentration (0-0.8 M) on the oxidation, structure, and digestibility of beef myofibrillar proteins. The results revealed that high temperatures and NaCl concentration of 0.4-0.8 M caused the salting-out effect, leading to a decrease in solubility. The oxidative denaturation of proteins leads to increased protein aggregation. Consequently, structural changes of myofibrillar proteins, and the digestive enzymes are unable to recognize specific sites, which reduces the digestibility of the proteins. The findings of this study revealed that heating beef myofibrillar proteins at 85 °C and 0.4 M NaCl substantially improved its digestibility to 85.66 %.

Comparison of in vitro digestive characteristics of proteins from different sources in simulated elderly gastrointestinal conditions

This study aimed to evaluate the impact of in vitro digestive characteristics of five different protein sources (fish, crab, beef, chicken, and soy) in adults and elderly individuals. Simulated gastrointestinal tract degradation in the elderly significantly reduced the digestibility of all proteins. The Elderly model had difficulties digesting any protein that had a firm structure or was prone to aggregation. Of the five protein types, soy protein was the least easily digested. Ultraviolet spectroscopy and SDS-PAGE analysis revealed that beef and crab proteins contain myoglobin and hemocyanin, respectively, making their structure firm. Simultaneously, alkali-soluble proteins in meat were more likely to be digested by the elderly than salt-soluble proteins. The alkali-soluble protein percentage in fish protein was the highest, including the best in vitro digestion characteristics in the elderly population. This study provides novel and significant recommendations for the elderly's daily intake of various protein sources.

Effect of high pressure homogenization on in vitro digestibility and colon fermentability of pea protein-rich bread designed for elderly consumers

Enrichment of staple foods with proteins can be a solution to tackle protein-energy malnutrition in the elderly. For instance, bread can be enriched with pea proteins that are cheap, sustainable and easily digestible. Non-conventional technologies, such as high pressure homogenization (HPH), can improve the digestibility of plant proteins. To characterize the health functionality of pea-enriched bread, a functional bread tailored to elderly consumers was developed by substituting 5% wheat flour with untreated or HPH-treated pea protein concentrate. Protein digestibility and colon fermentability were assessed by mimicking elderly in vitro gastrointestinal and gut microbiota conditions and compared with adult conditions. Bread reformulation with pea proteins affected physical and chemical properties and produced an increase in hardness, which is one of the key features for the acceptability of bread by the elderly. The highest hardness value was observed for pea protein bread, followed by HPH-treated pea protein bread and wheat bread. In vitro protein digestibility and fermentability were affected by reformulation and by physiological digestive conditions, with lower digestibility under elderly conditions compared to adult ones. The obtained results may contribute to a better understanding of food digestibility under different gastrointestinal conditions and its dependence on physiological and formulation factors, and ultimately would help to design age-tailored foods.

Assessing food digestion in the elderly using in vitro gastrointestinal models

With the global population of individuals aged 65 and older projected to exceed 1.5 billion by 2050, understanding the impact of aging on digestion and nutrient absorption is essential for addressing the nutritional needs of the elderly. This review explores the limitations of traditional in vivo studies and underscores the growing importance of in vitro gastrointestinal models as an ethical and cost-effective alternative for investigating digestion in the elderly. The review provides a comprehensive analysis of age-related physiological changes in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), and critically evaluates how static and dynamic in vitro models have been adapted to simulate these changes. We also discuss the significant challenges these models face in accurately replicating the complexities of elderly digestion, particularly in mimicking the interactions between digestive processes and the gut microbiome. By addressing these challenges, particularly through the development of more physiologically relevant and personalized in vitro models, this review highlights the potential to enhance our understanding of elderly digestion and improve nutritional strategies, ultimately contributing to better health outcomes for the aging population.

In vitro digestion mimicking conditions in adults and elderly reveals digestive characteristics of pork from different cooking ways

This study aimed to investigate the impact of three cooking ways (sous vide (SV), frying (FR) and roasting (RO)) on pork protein digestion characteristics under conditions simulating healthy adult (control, C) and elderly individuals with achlorhydria (EA). Changes in degree of hydrolysis (DH), SDS-PAGE profiles, zeta potential, particle size and secondary structure during digestion were evaluated. Our results revealed the EA condition markedly affected the protein digestion process of pork with different cooking ways. The DH values of SV (25.62%), FR (21.38%) and RO (19.40%) under the EA condition were significantly lower than those of under the control condition (38.32%, 33.00% and 30.86%, respectively). Moreover, differences were also observed among three cooking ways under the EA condition. For a given cooking way, the differences between control and EA conditions gradually diminished from the gastric to the intestinal phase. Under a certain digestion condition, SV maintained the highest degree of digestion throughout the process, particularly under the EA condition. Therefore, we conclude that pork cooked by sous vide is more recommendable for the elderly considering protein digestibility.

Plant-based proteins: advances in their sources, digestive profiles in vitro and potential health benefits

Plant-based proteins (PBPs), which are environmentally friendly and sustainable sources of nutrition, can address the emerging challenges facing the global food supply due to the rapidly increasing population. PBPs have received much attention in recent decades as a result of high nutritional values, good functional properties, and potential health effects. This review aims to summarize the nutritional, functional and digestive profiles of PBPs, the health effects of their hydrolysates, as well as processing methods to improve the digestibility of PBPs. The diversity of plant protein sources plays an important role in improving the PBPs quality. Several types of models such as in vitro (the static and semi-dynamic INFOGEST) and in silico models have been proposed and used in simulating the digestion of PBPs. Processing methods including germination, fermentation, thermal and non-thermal treatment can be applied to improve the digestibility of PBPs. PBPs and their hydrolysates show potential health effects including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-hypertensive and anti-cancer activities. Based on the literature, diverse PBPs are ideal protein sources, and exhibit favorable digestive properties and health benefits that could be further improved by different processing technologies. Future research should explore the molecular mechanisms underlying the bioactivity of PBPs and their hydrolysates.

From static to semi-dynamic in vitro digestion conditions relevant for the older population: starch and protein digestion of cooked lentils

In the context of adequately feeding the rising older population, lentils have an important potential as sources of (plant-based) protein as well as slowly digestible bio-encapsulated starch and fibre. This study evaluated in vitro digestion of protein and starch in lentils under conditions representing the gastrointestinal tract of older adults. Both static and semi-dynamic simulations were applied to analyze the effect of specific gastrointestinal conditions (healthy versus older adult) on macronutrient digestion patterns. Gastric proteolysis was strongly dependent on applied gastric pH (gradient), leading to a lower extent of protein hydrolysis for simulations relevant for older adults. Fewer and smaller (lower degree of polymerization, DP) bioaccessible peptides were formed during gastric proteolysis under older adult compared to healthy adult conditions. These differences, developed during the in vitro gastric phase, were compensated during small intestinal digestion, yielding similar final proteolysis levels regardless of the applied simulation conditions. In contrast, in the presence of saliva, amylolysis was generally accelerated under older adult conditions. Moreover, the current work highlighted the importance of considering saliva (or salivary amylase) incorporation in simulations where the applied gastric pH (gradient) allows salivary amylase activity. Under both healthy and older adult conditions, in vitro starch hydrolysis bio-encapsulated in cotyledon cells of cooked lentils was attenuated, compared to a white bread reference.

Investigating the migration hypothesis: Effects of trypsin-like protease on the quality of muscle proteins of red shrimp (Solenocera crassicornis) during cold storage

This study aimed to investigate the effect of trypsin-like protease (TLP) on the quality of muscle proteins in red shrimp (Solenocera crassicornis) during cold storage. The results indicated that the activity of TLP decreased significantly in the head of shrimp but increased significantly in the muscle tissues during the cold storage. The myofibril fragmentation index (MFI) value of intact shrimp was significantly higher than that of beheaded shrimp, while the Ca2+-ATPase activity of intact shrimp was significantly lower than that of beheaded shrimp. SDS-PAGE analysis showed that the molecular weight of purified TLP from the shrimp head was about 24 kDa, and the TLP showed high activity at 50 °C and pH 8, indicating that the TLP belongs to the trypsin family. Results from in vitro simulation experiments indicated that the process of TLP incubation significantly reduced the particle size and enlarged the distribution of myofibrillar proteins (MPs) in shrimp muscle tissues. The comparisons were made with respect to the control samples. It can be inferred that TLP migrated from the shrimp head to the muscle tissues during storage and thus promoted the degradation of MPs in red shrimp. The beheading treatment could be an effective mean to maintain better quality and extend the commercialization of shrimp products.

Slow-digestive yeast protein concentrate: An investigation of its in vitro digestibility and digestion behavior

Yeast protein concentrate, a by-product of the fermentation industry waste, is a potential alternative protein source with high nutritional quality, environmental sustainability, and functional properties. However, its digestibility and digestion behavior are poorly understood. In this study, we compared the in vitro digestion behavior of yeast protein concentrate and whey protein concentrate using simulated gastrointestinal conditions. We found that yeast protein concentrate had lower digestibility than whey protein concentrate (31.25% vs. 86.23% at 120 min of pepsin digestion and 75.12% vs. 95.2% at 120 min of pancreatin digestion). Yeast protein concentrate differed from whey protein concentrate in microstructure, secondary structure, and amino acid composition, which may affect its digestion behavior. Compared to whey protein concentrate, a higher level of β-sheets and a lower zeta potential explain the slow-digesting property of yeast protein concentrate. Yeast protein concentrate also underwent depolymerization and Plastein reaction during digestion. These results provided valuable information for developing and applying yeast protein concentrate as an alternative to conventional animal protein.

Behaviour of texture-modified meats using proteolytic enzymes during gastrointestinal digestion simulating elderly alterations

This study aimed to apply different proteolytic enzymes (bromelain, papain, and flavourzyme) to develop texture-modified meats suitable for people with chewing or swallowing problems. The samples were categorised at level 6 (soft and bite-sized food) of the dysphagia diet, characterised in terms of physicochemical and textural parameters, and evaluated for their behaviour during gastrointestinal digestion simulating elderly alterations. In general, the enzyme-treated samples had lower moisture content, weight, and diameter of the piece of meat, and presented colour differences compared to the control samples. Textural analyses did not show significant differences in terms of hardness and cohesiveness for the texture-modified meats, while flavourzyme-treated samples presented less elasticity. Instrumental mastication assay showed the breakdown of samples' structure mainly during the first mastication cycles, with flavourzyme-treated samples presenting slightly higher consistency. The protein digestibility of the meats greatly increased after simulated gastrointestinal digestion, but a decrease in proteolysis for the control and papain-treated samples in the altered gastric model and an increase for flavourzyme-treated samples in the altered both gastric and intestinal model were shown compared to standard conditions. These results allow integrating knowledge to design foods that better meet the requirements of dysphagics or elderly people.

Evaluation of sono-physico-chemical and processing effects in the mixed sarcoplasmic protein/soy protein isolate system

Since it may be employed to guide the production of high-quality plant protein as a partial substitute for animal protein using sono-physico-chemical effects, it is important to investigate the mixing of animal and plant protein in ultrasound (UID)-assisted processing systems. A study group of sono-physico-chemical processing with five distinct soy protein isolate (SPI)/ sarcoplasmic protein (SPN) ratios was developed in this work. The results showed that adding additional SPN to the mixed protein can increase its sono-physico-chemical impact, and this effect is greatest when the ratio of SPI to SPN is 1:3. The high SPN group's grafting rate rose from 39.13% to 55.26% in comparison to the high SPI content group. Quercetin (Que) may more readily modify SPN than SPI in the "dual protein" system used in this work, highlighting the critical function of plant protein in controlling the effects of UID-assisted processing in the "dual protein" system. Changes in apparent viscosity and microstructure are the primary parameters that affect the severity of sono-physico-chemical effects in SPI/SPN mixed protein systems, in addition to structural variables.

Exploring in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of myofibrillar proteins at different heating temperatures

The effects of different heating temperatures (40-115 °C) on the structure, oxidation, and digestibility of beef myofibrillar protein were investigated. Reductions in the number of sulfhydryl groups were observed, together with gradual increases in the number of carbonyl groups, indicating oxidation of the protein by the increased temperatures. At temperatures between 40 °C and 85 °C, β-sheets were converted to α-helices, and increased surface hydrophobicity showed that the protein expanded as the temperature approached 85 °C. These changes were reversed at temperatures over 85 °C, indicative of aggregation induced by thermal oxidation. Between 40 °C and 85 °C, the digestibility of the myofibrillar protein was increased, reaching a maximum of 59.5 % at 85 °C, after which it began to decrease. These results indicated that moderate heating and oxidation-induced protein expansion were beneficial to digestion while protein aggregation resulting from excessive heating is not conducive to digestion.

Comparative Study on Hydrolysis, Physicochemical and Antioxidant Properties in Simulated Digestion System between Cooked Pork and Fish Meat

Pork and grass carp are commonly consumed animal protein sources, classified as red meat and white meat, respectively. This study aimed to better understand the differences in digestive behavior, nutrition, and functionality during digestion between these two types of meat after fat removal. The results showed that grass carp was more easily digested than pork, with a higher degree of hydrolysis, a smaller protein particle size, and a greater release of oligopeptides and amino acids (p < 0.05). During gastric digestion, all α-helix structures were destroyed, and the effect of the whole digestion process on the secondary and tertiary structure of pork protein was greater than that of grass carp. The antioxidant properties of the digestive fluids from the two types of meat showed different strengths in various assays, but the correlation analysis revealed that TCA-soluble peptides, random coil content, and particle size significantly influenced both types of meat. These findings provide new insights into the structural state and antioxidant properties of protein in meat digestion, which contribute to our understanding of the nutritional value of pork and grass carp.

The impact of advanced age on gastrointestinal characteristics that are relevant to oral drug absorption: An AGePOP review

The purpose of this review is to summarize the current knowledge on three physiological determinants of oral drug absorption, i.e., gastric emptying, volumes and composition of luminal fluids, and intestinal permeability, in the advanced age population, so that potential knowledge gaps and directions for further research efforts are identified. Published data on gastric emptying rates in older people are conflicting. Also, there are significant knowledge gaps, especially on gastric motility and emptying rates of drugs and of non-caloric fluids. Compared with younger adults, volumes of luminal contents seem to be slightly smaller in older people. Our understanding on the impact of advanced age on luminal physicochemical characteristics is, at best, very limited, whereas the impact of (co)morbidities and geriatric syndromes in the advanced age population has not been addressed to date. The available literature on the effect of advanced age on intestinal permeability is limited, and should be approached with caution, primarily due to the limitations of the experimental methodologies used.

Oral and gastrointestinal nutrient bioaccessibility of gluten-free bread is slightly affected by deficient mastication in the elderly

The main goal of this work was to investigate the impact of impaired mastication on nutrient bioaccessibility of gluten-free bread in the elderly. In vitro boluses were produced with the AM² masticator by using two types of programming: normal mastication (NM) and deficient mastication (DM). Static in vitro gastrointestinal digestion was performed with the digestive physiology conditions of the elderly. Subsequently, the granulometric properties of the in vitro boluses produced, their starch and protein digestibility, and lipid peroxidation after in vitro oral and gastrointestinal digestion were evaluated. DM boluses presented higher proportions of large particles, resulting in insufficiently fragmented boluses. A delay in oral starch digestion was observed in DM boluses, probably due to the presence of larger particles that limited the bolus-saliva exchanges. Furthermore, DM boluses exhibited a lower degree of protein hydrolysis at the end of gastric digestion, whereas no differences were observed for protein hydrolysis, sugar release, and lipid peroxidation at the end of digestion (intestinal phase). The results of this study show that impaired mastication somewhat delays the nutrient bioaccessibility of the gluten-free bread tested. Such understanding of the effect of oral decline on the nutrient bioaccessibility of foods is crucial when designing food commodities with enhanced functionalities for the elderly.

Metabolic regulation mechanism of Trametes gibbosa CB_1 on lignin

White rot fungi can degrade lignin and play a significant role in the recycling of carbon resources for environmental protection. Trametes gibbosa is the main white rot fungus in Northeast China. The main acids produced by T. gibbosa degradation, include long-chain fatty acids, lactic acid, succinic acid, and some small molecular compounds for example benzaldehyde. A variety of proteins respond to lignin stress and play an important role in xenobiotics metabolism, metal ion transport, and redox. Coordinated regulation and detoxification activation of H₂O₂ produced in oxidative stress by peroxidase coenzyme system and Fenton reaction. The Dioxygenase cleavage pathway and β-ketoadipic acid pathway are the main oxidation pathways of lignin degradation, which mediate the entry of "COA" into the TCA cycle. In the joint action of hydrolase and coenzyme, cellulose, hemicellulose, and other polysaccharides are degraded and finally converted to glucose to participate in energy metabolism. The expression of the laccase (Lcc_1) protein was verified by E. coli. Also, the Lcc_1 overexpression mutant was established. The morphology of mycelium was dense and the lignin degradation rate was improved. We completed the first non-directional mutation of in T. gibbosa. It also improved the mechanism of T. gibbosa in response to lignin stress.

Unlocking the bioactivity of meat proteins: Comparison of meat and meat hydrolysate via simulated gastrointestinal digestion

Understanding the functional attributes of meat proteins is crucial for determining their nutritional benefits. Depending on the form in which meat proteins are available, the digestive process can release peptides which are valuable for nutrition and may also possess bioactive properties, affecting physiology. Liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was used to quantitatively compare the molecular peptide features (representing non-redundant peptides), during the different stages of a simulated gastrointestinal digestion process of a minimally processed powdered meat and its enzymatically produced hydrolysate. Results from a principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that the hydrolysate did not undergo extensive additional digestion whereas the powdered meat was digested both at the gastric and in the intestinal phases. Bioactive peptide sequence prediction identified the meat hydrolysate but not the meat powder as the only source of exact and partial bioactive matches in the angiotensin-I converting enzyme and dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibition categories. Also, a higher source of cryptides (encrypted bioactive peptides), indicated that meat hydrolysates are potentially a better substrate for the release of these enzyme inhibitory peptides. These observations thus suggest that pre-digestion of a complex food matrix such as meat, may enhance its bioavailability following oral consumption early in the digestion process. SIGNIFICANCE: This work highlights enzymatic hydrolysis of meat proteins prior to ingestion allows for potentially higher bioavailability of bioactive peptides that inhibit angiotensin-I converting enzyme and dipeptidyl peptidase IV, thus possibly aiding high blood pressure and type 2 diabetes management.

Effect of Oxidative Modification by Peroxyl Radical on the Characterization and Identification of Oxidative Aggregates and In Vitro Digestion Products of Walnut (Juglans regia L.) Protein Isolates

Walnut protein is a key plant protein resource due to its high nutritional value, but walnuts are prone to oxidation during storage and processing. This article explored the oxidative modification and digestion mechanism of walnut protein isolates by peroxyl radical and obtained new findings. SDS-PAGE and spectral analysis were used to identify structural changes in the protein after oxidative modification, and LC-MS/MS was used to identify the digestion products. The findings demonstrated that as the AAPH concentration increased, protein carbonyl content increased from 2.36 to 5.12 nmol/mg, while free sulfhydryl content, free amino content, and surface hydrophobicity decreased from 4.30 nmol/mg, 1.47 μmol/mg, and 167.92 to 1.72 nmol/mg, 1.13 μmol/mg, and 40.93 nmol/mg, respectively. Furthermore, the result of Tricine-SDS-PAGE in vitro digestion revealed that protein oxidation could cause gastric digestion resistance and a tendency for intestinal digestion promotion. Carbonyl content increased dramatically during the early stages of gastric digestion and again after 90 min of intestine digestion, and LC-MS/MS identified the last digestive products of the stomach and intestine as essential seed storage proteins. Oxidation causes walnut proteins to form aggregates, which are then re-oxidized during digestion, and proper oxidative modification may benefit intestinal digestion.

Characterization and Cellular Uptake of Peptides Derived from In Vitro Digestion of Meat Analogues Produced by a Sustainable Extrusion Process

Whether proteins in meat analogues (MAs) have the ability to provide equivalent nutrition as those in animal meat remains unknown. Herein, a MA was produced by high-moisture extrusion using soy and wheat proteins. The physicochemical properties, in vitro digestion, and cellular uptake of the released peptides were systematically compared between the MA and the chicken breast (CB). The MA showed a higher hardness but a lower degree of texturization than the CB. After simulated digestion, soluble peptides in the MA had a higher molecular weight and higher hydrophobicity. No observable cytotoxicity or inflammatory response to Caco-2 cells was found for both MA and CB digests. The former exhibited less permeability of peptides across Caco-2 cells. Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry found that the identified peptides in MA and CB digests contained 7-30 and 7-20 amino acid residues, respectively, and they became shorter after cellular transportation. The amino acid composition showed fewer essential and non-essential amino acids in the MA permeate than in the CB permeate.

Vibration mill-assisted complex enzyme hydrolysis for flavoring of freeze-dried sea cucumber powder

This study aims to analyze the flavor differences of freeze-dried sea cucumber powder, processed for different time intervals, under vibration mill-assisted complex enzyme hydrolysis using electronic nose (E-nose) and gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (GC-IMS). The results of principal component analysis by E-nose showed distinction among the four groups of freeze-dried sea cucumber powder (papain-neutral protease (PN) and flavorzyme-neutral protease (FN), processed for 60 and 80 min). The GC-IMS revealed 35 volatile compounds. Subsequently, based on the fingerprint and heat map results, the flavor differences among the samples were clearly distinguished. When compared to the other three groups, the 60-FN group exhibited a greater variety and quantity of volatile compounds such as octanal, heptanal, hexanal, (E, Z)-2,6-nonadienal, and nonanal. The 80-PN group exhibited high amounts of 2-propanone, ethylbenzene, ethyl acetate, and 2,5-dimethylpyrazine. In addition, the vibration mill technique was considered to be a mild enzyme-assisted method. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This study found that different enzyme types and physical technology operation time can affect the different volatile flavor compounds of freeze-dried sea cucumber powder, which can be quickly and effectively be identified by E-nose and GC-IMS technology to improve the flavor and quality of the product, while facilitating the rapid adjustment and development of the industry. Meanwhile, the results of the study could provide a reference for the deep processing and flavor improvement of the sea cucumber industry and make an important contribution to the related literature. In addition, this could also promote the development and application of non-thermal processing technologies such as vibratory mill in the freeze-dried sea cucumber powder industry.