pH-driven-assembled soy peptide nanoparticles as particulate emulsifier for oil-in-water Pickering emulsion and their potential for encapsulation of vitamin D3

Validation of the enhanced physicochemical and bioactive properties of Lessonia trabeculata fucoidan upon transfer to the fluid interface via upper gastrointestinal model in vitro

The prominent bioactivities of fucoidan have attracted increasing attention from food scientists. Recent studies have highlighted the potential structural damages triggered by gastrointestinal digestion, which reduces the bioactive performance of fucoidan. Here, we aimed to preserve the bioactivities of fucoidan in a digestive environment by incorporating fucoidan at the interface of an oil/water emulsion. The effects of the digestive progression on fucoidan structures and bioactivities were traced by the dynamic changes in reducing sugar content and radical scavenging activities of digesta collected from different simulated digestion timepoints. Notably, there was a 71 % increase in the DPPH radical scavenging rate after fucoidan (0.25 %; w/w) was incorporated into an emulsion. Besides, the formulated emulsion showed remarkable storage stability at 4 °C with no cream layer formation for seven days. Although the acidified emulsion showed a 15.63 % creaming index, there was still a significant reduction in reducing sugar content after 2-h small intestinal digestion from 2.76 mg/mL for fucoidan digesta in a free form to 2.63 mg/mL for interfacial fucoidan digesta. Here, we highlighted that the fucoidan-stabilized emulsion retained superior antioxidant potential throughout the simulated gastrointestinal tract, which is possibly due to improved structural integrity. These data provide comprehensive information on the enhancement in physiochemical properties and bioactivities of fucoidan after transferring from a continuous phase to an interface, which suggests the potential application of fucoidan in functional fortified beverages and presents a novel supplementation approach to enhance its bioavailability in the health products.

Construction and controlled flavor release of high internal phase emulsion stabilized by pH-driven-assembled soy peptide nanoparticles

This study aimed to evaluate the potential of pH-driven assembled soy peptide nanoparticle (SPN) to prepare high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) containing sweet orange essential oil (SOEO), and the effects of SPN concentration and oil phase fraction on the formation, stability and flavor release characteristics were investigated. Results showed that stable HIPEs with excellent self-supporting state were successfully fabricated at relative high SPN concentrations (0.5-3.0 wt%). And the increase in SPN concentration could cause smaller droplet size, better viscoelastic properties and stability. The flavor release of SOEO in SPN-stabilized HIPEs could be slowed down and modulated by regulating SPN concentration, and the retention of key flavor compound (d-limonene) in SOEO encapsulated in HIPEs could be reached to higher than 70 % after 120 days of storage. All these indicated the effective encapsulation and delivery of SOEO in SPN-stabilized HIPEs and their prospective application as fat substitutes in plant-based food systems.

Recent advances in modification of plant-based proteins for improved encapsulation performance

Encapsulation is a useful technique for protection, stabilization and controlling the release of bioactive compounds and food ingredients particularly sensitive to environmental factors such as heat, light and temperature. A wide variety of biopolymers can be used as wall materials in encapsulation, among which proteins are an essential group. In recent years, with the increasing interest in concepts such as plant-based nutrition and sustainability, the use of plant proteins in encapsulation has also increased. Proteins obtained from plant sources are sustainable, easily accessible, and low cost compared to animal-based counterparts; additionally, they are biodegradable, renewable, and biocompatible. However, there are some limitations regarding their functional properties such as solubility, emulsifying, gelling, and film-forming abilities. Various physical, chemical and enzymatic modification methods are used to improve the functional properties of plant proteins and to expand their use in encapsulation technologies. In this review, plant-based proteins (PBPs) and their use in encapsulation are discussed. Different modification techniques can improve the encapsulation performance of plant proteins; however, process parameters should be optimized. The most commonly studied physical, chemical, enzymatic and combined modification methods are sonication, Maillard conjugation, enzymatic hydrolysis and pH-shifting combined ultrasonication, respectively. The use of combined modification methods is a promising approach for improvement of the encapsulation performance of PBPs.

Effects of alcalase hydrolysis combined with TGase-type glycosylation of self-assembled zein for curcumin delivery: Stability, bioavailability, and antioxidant properties

In this study, zein was hydrolyzed by alcalase and conjugated to oligochitosan under transglutaminase (TGase) catalysis to construct novel self-assembly complex for the delivery of curcumin. The effects of enzyme hydrolysis and TGase-type glycosylation of zein/curcumin on the stability, bioavailability, and antioxidant properties were evaluated. The obtained glycosylated zein hydrolysate had a uniform distribution and small particle sizes. Structural analysis revealed that the primary forces within the curcumin-loaded glycosylated zein hydrolysate complex were electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interactions. The prepared complex demonstrated excellent encapsulation efficiency for curcumin (82.19 %). Oligochitosan formed a protective layer around zein hydrolysate/curcumin complex through covalent binding, effectively resisting the degradation caused by gastric enzymes. This significantly increased the retention rate during the undigested stage and facilitated the release of curcumin in the intestine, thereby enhancing the bioavailability. This study offers new insights into using hydrolysis combined with TGase-type glycosylation of protein as a delivery system to protect hydrophobic nutrients.

Plant protein-based Pickering emulsion for the encapsulation and delivery of fat-soluble vitamins: A systematic review

Vitamin deficiencies pose a significant global health challenge, leading to various health issues and economic burdens. These challenges arise with the delivery of fat-soluble vitamin (FSV) due to its poor stability against the environmental stimuli. The commercial fortification methods such as Pickering emulsion (PE), hydrogel and others offer a potential solution over the limitations of conventional vitamin delivery methods (degradation and poor bioavailability). PE stabilized by solid plant protein particles, have emerged as a promising approach for encapsulation and delivery of oil-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K). Plant proteins, with their amphiphilic nature and nutritional benefits, are particularly well-suited as a stabilizer for PE. Plant protein-based PE enhances protection of vitamins against the environmental stimuli and enhances the delivery efficiency of oil-soluble vitamins. Factors such as particle size, concentration, and oil type also influence the stability, encapsulation efficiency, and bio-accessibility of fat-soluble vitamins in PE. Hence, the present review explores the impact of various factors on the stability and bio-accessibility of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D and E) and also emphasizing the role of particle size and concentration of stabilizer in controlling release rates of vitamin encapsulated PE. The review also highlights the application of plant protein-based PEs in various food products including nutrient fortification, functional foods, and 3D food printing.

Effect of stigmasterol and polyglycerol polyricinoleate concentrations on the preparation and properties of rapeseed oil-based gel emulsions

Emulsion gels mimic the rheological properties of solid and semi-solid fats, offering a viable solution to replace conventional fats in low-fat food formulations. In this study, gel emulsions stabilized with stigmasterol (ST) and polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) complexes were prepared. Initially, we examined the effect of the ST/PGPR complex on the mechanism of gel emulsion stabilization. Our findings revealed that the gel emulsion formulated with 3% PGPR and ST exhibited a robust structure, effectively stabilizing the entire system and ensuring uniform distribution, and increasing ST concentration led to greater stability of the gel emulsion system. Stability assessments demonstrated that gel emulsions containing 3% PGPR and varying ST concentrations exhibited remarkable thermal stability and effectively delayed oil oxidation. These results underscore the high stability of gel emulsions stabilized with the ST/PGPR complex, highlighting their potential as a margarine substitute.

Food-derived peptides unleashed: emerging roles as food additives beyond bioactivities

Innovating food additives stands as a cornerstone for the sustainable evolution of future food systems. Peptides derived from food proteins exhibit a rich array of physicochemical and biological attributes crucial for preserving the appearance, flavor, texture, and nutritional integrity of foods. Leveraging these peptides as raw materials holds great promise for the development of novel food additives. While numerous studies underscore the potential of peptides as food additives, existing reviews predominantly focus on their biotic applications, leaving a notable gap in the discourse around their abiotic functionalities, such as their physicochemical properties. Addressing this gap, this review offers a comprehensive survey of peptide-derived food additives in food systems, accentuating the application of peptides' abiotic properties. It furnishes a thorough exploration of the underlying mechanisms and diverse applications of peptide-derived food additives, while also delineating the challenges encountered and prospects for future applications. This well-time review will set the stage for a deeper understanding of peptide-derived food additives.

Emulsification and stabilisation technologies used for the inclusion of lipophilic functional ingredients in food systems

Food industry is increasingly using functional ingredients to improve the food product quality. Lipid-containing functional ingredients are important sources of nutrients. This review examines the current state of emulsification and stabilisation technologies for incorporating lipophilic functional ingredients into food systems. Lipophilic functional ingredients, such as omega-3 fatty acids, carotenoids, and fat-soluble vitamins, offer numerous health benefits but present challenges due to their limited solubility in water-based food matrices. Emulsification techniques enable the dispersion of these ingredients in aqueous environments, facilitating their inclusion in a variety of food products. This review highlights recent advances in food emulsion formulation, emulsification methods and stabilisation techniques which, together, improve the stability and bioavailability of lipophilic compounds. The role of various emulsifiers, stabilizers, and encapsulation materials in enhancing the functionality of these ingredients is also explored. Furthermore, the review discusses different stabilisation techniques which can yield in emulsion in a solid or liquid state. By providing a comprehensive overview of current technologies, this review aims to guide future research and application in the development of functional foods enriched with lipophilic ingredients.

Fabrication and Optimization of Pickering Emulsion Stabilized by Lignin Nanoparticles for Curcumin Encapsulation

To develop reversible pH-responsive emulsifiers of natural origin, alkali lignin (AL) was used to develop oil-in-water Pickering emulsions. AL was first modified to synthesize quaternized alkali lignin (QAL), which displayed pH-responsive properties and demonstrated solubility in both acidic and alkaline solutions. In contrast, QAL exhibited insolubility and formed particles in neutral solutions, thereby making it a suitable candidate for utilization as an emulsifier in doubly pH-responsive Pickering emulsions. At pH 5-9, the emulsions were stable. Above or below this pH range, the system demulsifies, resulting in a reversible Pickering emulsifier with two pH-controlled transitions. On the basis of this pH-dependent behavior, lignin-based Pickering emulsions (LPE) could be subjected to several cycles of emulsification-demulsification by alternating the pH of the aqueous phase between basic and acidic, while the droplet size and storage stability were maintained. Curcumin was used as a drug model to study the loading/release behavior of LPE, finding that 50.08% of curcumin could be encapsulated in LPE. The in vitro release of curcumin was pH-dependent. In addition, LPE exhibited an outstanding protective effect against the ultraviolet-induced degradation of curcumin.

Fabrication, structure, characterization and emulsion application of citrate agar

In this study, citric acid successfully reacted with agar through the dry heat method, and citrate agar (CA) gel was used to stabilize O/W emulsions. The mechanisms of the CA structure and emulsion pH that affected emulsion stabilization were analyzed, and the application of CA gel emulsion (CAGE) was explored. Compared with native agar (NA), CA showed lower gel strength, higher transparency, and higher water contact angle. These changes indicate that a cross-linking reaction occurred, and it was demonstrated via FTIR and NMR. The emulsion properties were evaluated using particle size, ζ-potential, and the emulsification activity index. Results showed that CAGEs had a smaller particle size and lower ζ-potential than the native agar gel emulsion (NAGE). Meanwhile, confocal laser scanning microscopy confirmed that the CA gels stabilized the emulsions by forming a protective film around the oil droplets. Stability experiments revealed that CAGE (prepared with CA gel [DS = 0.145]) exhibited better stability than NAGE in the pH range of 3-11, and the rheological results further confirmed that the stability of the emulsions was influenced by the network structure and oil droplet interaction forces. Afterward, the application prospect of CAGE was evaluated by encapsulating vitamin D3 and curcumin.

Body temperature responsive capsules templated from Pickering emulsion for thermally triggered release of β-carotene

In recent years, functional foods with lipophilic nutraceutical ingredients are gaining more and more attention because of its potential healthy and commercial value, and developing of various bioderived food-grade particles for use in fabrication of Pickering emulsion has attracted great attentions. Herein, the bio-originated sodium caseinate-lysozyme (Cas-Lyz) complex particles were firstly designed to be used as a novel interfacial emulsifier for Pickering emulsions. Pickering emulsions of various food oils were all successfully stabilized by the Cas-Lyz particles without addition of any synthetic surfactants, while the fluorescence microscopy and SEM characterizations clearly evidenced Cas-Lyz particles were attached on the surface of emulsion droplets. Additionally, the Cas-Lyz particles stabilized emulsion can also be used to encapsulate the β-carotene-loaded soybean oil, suggestion a potential method to carry lipophilic bioactive ingredients in an aqueous formulation for food, cosmetic and medical industry. At last, we present a Pickering emulsion strategy that utilizes biocompatible, edible and body temperature-responsive lard oil as the core material in microcapsules, which can achieve hermetic sealing and physiological temperature-triggered release of model nutraceutical ingredient (β-carotene).

Alcalase-hydrolyzed insoluble soybean meal hydrolysate aggregates: Structure, bioactivity, function properties, and influences on the stability of oil-in-water emulsions

We studied the influences of hydrolysis time on the structure, functional properties, and emulsion stability of insoluble soybean meal hydrolysate aggregates (ISMHAs). We assume that the ISMHAs produced by soybean meal can be used as emulsifiers to prepare stable emulsions. The molecular weights of these ISMHAs were below 53 kDa. After hydrolysis, a decrease in α-helices and an increase in random coils indicated that the soybean meal proteins were unfolding. Moreover, the fluorescence intensity, UV absorption, and surface hydrophobicity of ISMHAs increased. These results would contribute to their antioxidant activity and functional properties. Additionally, the 90-min ISMHA sample exhibited the highest ABTS+• scavenging activity (80.02 ± 4.55 %), foaming stability (52.92 ± 8.06 %), and emulsifying properties (emulsifying activity index of 97.09 m2/g; emulsifying stability index of 371.47 min). The 90-min ISMHA emulsion exhibited the smallest particle size and excellent storage stability. Soybean meal peptide by-product emulsifier has potential for sustainable application.

Sodium alginate-sodium hyaluronate-hydrolyzed silk for microencapsulation and sustained release of kidney tea saponin: The regulation of human intestinal flora in vitro

Kidney tea saponin (KTS) exhibits considerable efficacy in lowering glucose levels; however, it does not have widespread applications owing to its low intestinal utilization. Therefore, in the present study, we prepared sodium alginate (SA)/sodium hyaluronate (HA)/hydrolyzed silk (SF) gel beads for the effective encapsulation and targeted intestinal release of KTS. The gel beads exhibited an encapsulation rate of 90.67 % ± 0.27 % and a loading capacity of 3.11 ± 0.21 mg/mL; furthermore, the release rate of KTS was 95.46 % ± 0.02 % after 8 h of simulated digestion. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed that the hydroxyl in SA/HA/SF-KTS was shifted toward the strong peak; this was related to KTS encapsulation. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy revealed that the gel bead space network facilitates KTS encapsulation. In addition, the ability of KTS and the gel beads to inhibit α-amylase (IC50 = 0.93 and 1.37 mg/mL, respectively) and α-glucosidase enzymes (IC50 = 1.17 and 0.93 mg/mL, respectively) was investigated. In vitro colonic fermentation experiments revealed that KTS increased the abundance of Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes and butyric acid-producing bacteria. The study showed that the developed gel-loading system plays a vital role in delivering bioactive substances, achieving slow release, and increasing the abundance and diversity of intestinal flora.

The construction of garlic diallyl disulfide nano-emulsions and their effect on the physicochemical properties and heterocyclic aromatic amines formation in roasted pork

Garlic diallyl disulfide (DAD) nano-emulsions consisting of soy proteins were constructed, and their effects on physicochemical properties and heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) formation in roasted pork were investigated. DAD was well encapsulated by soy proteins with a mean particle of 400-700 nm. Applying DAD nano-emulsions to pork patties significantly altered the color and texture of roasted pork, with a slight increase in brightness and decreases in redness and yellowness. The flavor determination demonstrated that sulfur-containing compound levels in encapsulated DAD were significantly reduced, particularly 7S group compounds, indicating an effective shielding effect on the irritating odor of garlic oil by protein. The levels of three HAAs (MeIQx, PhIP, and Harman) were significantly reduced by DAD nano-emulsion exposure (51.84 %, 76.80 %, and 48.70 %, respectively). This study provides a new method for inhibiting HAA formation and improving the sensory qualities of meat products.

Plant protein-based emulsions for the delivery of bioactive compounds

Emulsion-based delivery systems (EBDSs) can be used as effective carriers for bioactive compounds (bioactives). Recent studies have shown that plant proteins (PLPs) have the potential to be utilized as stabilizers of emulsions for loading, protection and delivery of bioactives. Different strategies combining physical, chemical and biological techniques can be applied for alteration of the structural characteristics and improving the emulsification and encapsulation performance of PLPs. The stability, release, and bioavailability of the encapsulated bioactives can be tailored via optimizing the processing conditions and formulation of the emulsions. This paper presents cutting-edge information on PLP-based emulsions carrying bioactives in terms of their preparation methods, physicochemical characteristics, stability, encapsulation efficiency and release behavior of bioactives. Strategies applied for improvement of emulsifying and encapsulation properties of PLPs used in EBDSs are also reviewed. Special emphasis is given to the use of PLP-carbohydrate complexes for stabilizing bioactive-loaded emulsions.

Protein-polysaccharides based nanoparticles for loading with Malus baccata polyphenols and their digestibility in vitro

The poor solubility, instability and low absorption rate obstruct the bioavailability of polyphenols isolated from Malus baccata (MBP) during gastrointestinal digestion. In order to solve the limitable problems, the food-grade nanoparticles were fabricated by mucin (MC) and Hohenbuehelia serotina polysaccharides (HSP) for delivery of MBP (MBP-NPs). The physicochemical properties and morphology of MBP-NPs prepared by different condition were respectively characterized. During gastrointestinal digestion in vitro, the release characteristic and variation in phenolic composition of MBP-NPs were evaluated. The results showed that MBP-NPs formed by hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interaction possessed the regularly spherical shapes and smooth surfaces and semi-crystalline properties. Moreover, MBP-NPs presented the excellent physicochemical stability. During simulated gastrointestinal digestion in vitro, MBP-NPs exhibited the sustained release characteristics of phenolic compounds, which were confirmed by SDS-PAGE measurement. Compared with that of unencapsulated MBP, the significant variation was occurred in the phenolic composition of MBP-NPs, indicating that MBP-NPs could prevent the degradation and transformation of phenolic compounds. This study provides a novel strategy to improve the bioavailability of polyphenols.

Preparation and Characterization of Rutin–Loaded Zein–Carboxymethyl Starch Nanoparticles

In this work, rutin (RT)–loaded zein–carboxymethyl starch (CMS) nanoparticles were successfully prepared by the antisolvent precipitation method. The effect of CMS on composite nanoparticles at different concentrations was studied. When the ratio of zein–RT–CMS was 10:1:30, the encapsulation efficiency (EE) was the highest, reaching 73.5%. At this ratio, the size of the composite nanoparticles was 196.47 nm, and the PDI was 0.13, showing excellent dispersibility. The results of fluorescence spectroscopy, FTIR, XRD, and CD showed that electrostatic interaction, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interaction were the main driving forces for the formation of nanoparticles. It can be seen from the FE–SEM images that the zein–RT–CMS nanoparticles were spherical. With the increase in the CMS concentration, the particles gradually embedded in the cross–linked network of CMS (10:1:50). After RT was loaded on zein–CMS nanoparticles, the thermal stability and pH stability of RT were improved. The results showed that zein–CMS was an excellent encapsulation material for bioactive substances.