Contamination of meat products during smoking by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Processes and prevention

Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in smoked pork tissue of different characteristic

This study investigates the distribution of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in traditionally and industrially smoked pork (loin, neck, bacon), focusing on differences between tissue types. The samples were analyzed using GC-FID after solid-liquid and solid-phase extraction. In traditionally smoked loin (median 9.73 μg/kg), the highest PAH concentration was in the skin (14.95 μg/kg), followed by exterior (6.46 μg/kg), interior (1.72 μg/kg) and center (0.10 μg/kg). In industrially smoked lion, median concentration was 0.61 μg/kg in the skin, no PAH were detected in the interior. For traditionally smoked neck (median 28.38 μg/kg) adipose tissue contained about 20 % less PAH than skin, but about 30 % more than marble and 60 % more than lean tissue. In traditionally smoked bacon (median 52.71 μg/kg), fat tissue contained 10 % less than skin and 20 % more than lean layer. Industrially smoked bacon had PAH levels below 1 μg/kg; light hydrocarbons prevailed. Post-smoking stages (drying, aging, vacuum wrapping) reduced PAH levels by 11-32 % (up to 24 % in exterior and 10 % in interior). Risk assessment indicated that weekly consumption of 50 g of smoked pork posed negligible cancer risk for all meat species, though daily bacon intake may pose a slight risk. The study highlights PAH variability across pork tissues, helping consumers make health-conscious dietary choices while preserving smoked pork consumption traditions.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Polish Traditionally and Industrially Smoked Meats as an Element of Monitoring and PAH Reduction Strategies

This work aimed to analyze the PAH content in products smoked in traditional smokehouses with direct and indirect heat sources and in an industrial way as an element of PAH content monitoring in Polish market products. This research material comprised 12 smoked meats (W) and 38 sausages (K), medium or coarsely minced. The content of benzo(a)pyrene and the total content of four marker PAHs was determined by GC-MS. The analysis showed a significantly higher level of PAH contamination in products smoked using traditional methods. The results also indicate that the natural casing is not a barrier against PAH contamination during traditional smoking, and a higher degree of meat fragmentation, together with a small cross-section, increases the PAH content in this technological group. Concentrations of benzo(a)pyrene exceeding the permissible levels were found in the sausages smoked for more than 60 min. As part of the strategies for reducing the PAH content, among others, changing the furnace to an indirect one, shortening the time, lowering the smoking temperature, using artificial casings or removing casings before consumption, drying the product surface before the smoking process, using seasoned and bark-free wood, as well as additional smokehouse equipment, are recommended.

Influence of Smoking and Paprika Spice on the Content of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Traditional Spanish Smoked Sausage 'Botillo del Bierzo'

The content of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a traditional Spanish smoked sausage known as 'Botillo del Bierzo' was analysed. The determination and quantification of PAH4 (the sum of benzo[a]pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, benzo[b]-fluoranthene and chrysene) in the smoked sausage were performed using GC-MS. The results showed that smoking 'Botillo del Bierzo' for 24 h contributes very little to the increase in PAH levels in the product, with no significant differences (p < 0.05). The paprika used in the production of botillo also contributes to PAH content, depending on the paprika's production process (smoked, low-smoked, mixed paprika (smoked + unsmoked or low-smoked + unsmoked), and unsmoked), with significant differences among them (p < 0.05). Using paprika with a lower PAH content (unsmoked or mixed) enables the production of 'Botillo del Bierzo', in accordance with Protected Geographical Indication specifications, with a lower PAH content while maintaining the organoleptic characteristics provided by the paprika. The contamination levels detected in 'Botillo del Bierzo' do not pose a risk to consumer health, as the benzo[a]pyrene and PAH4 values are well below the regulatory limits of 5 μg/kg and 30 μg/kg, respectively.

Levels, enrichment characteristics, and health risks of halogenated and parent polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in traditional smoked pork

Chinese traditional smoked pork was contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and chlorinated and brominated PAHs (ClPAHs and BrPAHs; XPAHs) during the smoking process. Therefore, our study investigated the concentrations, enrichment characteristics, and health risks associated with PAHs, as well as ClPAHs and BrPAHs in Chinese traditional smoked pork. The total concentrations of PAHs, ClPAHs and BrPAHs in traditional smoked pork ranged from 90.0 to 79200 ng/g fat weight (fw), 23.6-2340 pg/g fw and 0.550-200 pg/g fw, respectively, which were significantly higher than their levels found in raw pork. Additionally, the concentrations of PAHs and XPAHs in the surface of smoked pork were higher than those in the inner parts. High-ring PAHs exhibited a greater enrichment compared to low-ring PAHs, and BrPAHs exhibited greater enrichment ability than ClPAHs in smoked pork. Furthermore, the ability of individual congeners to migrate from the surface to the inner parts of the smoked pork were varied. When the smoking fuels were similar, a longer smoking time resulted in higher concentrations of PAHs and XPAHs in smoked pork, while casing effectively reduced their concentrations. The correlation between XPAH and parent PAH concentrations indicated that chlorination of PAHs was one of the primary formation mechanisms of some monochlorinated PAHs. Over half of the smoked pork samples posed a potential carcinogenic risk, particularly the surface samples. It is recommended to remove the surface parts when consuming smoked pork and to improve traditional smoking methods to mitigate the health risks.

Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pahs) in mothers' milk of kafr el-zayat district, egypt: A case study for the health risk of infants in urban regions

For babies, mother milk is the primary source of nutrition. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are released into the environment by the majority of metropolitan areas. The purpose of this study was to quantify the risks to milk consumers by determining the amounts of 14 PAH congeners in 60 milk samples that were taken from the rural Tanta area and the urban Kafr El-Zayat district of Egypt. Comparing the mean PAH content in Kafr El-Zayat samples to the reference zone's equivalent value (0.685 µg/g fat), it showed 11.87 µg/g fat. There is no probability risk when the hazard quotient (HQ) for babies linked to milk consumption is smaller than unity. Regarding low, medium, and high exposure percentiles, the estimated daily dosage equivalent to benzo[a]pyrene (Bap) revealed the corresponding values for mutagenicity: 9.77E-03, 8.37E-03, and 5.58E-03, and carcinogenicity: 5.13E-03, 4.40E-03, and 2.94E-03. Predicted hazards greater than unity were imposed by such doses. Because this was a first examination for an ancient industrial zone in Egypt, the important information of this work explains the projected non-safety pattern of the breast milk ingested in the Kafr El-Zayat region.

Inhibitory Effects of Fruit Powders on the Formation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Charcoal-Grilled Pork

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), carcinogenic substances primarily formed through pyrolysis and oxidation of fat at high cooking temperatures, are commonly found at high levels in grilled meats. Reducing PAHs formation by incorporating natural antioxidants, such as through marination, has been demonstrated to be effective. However, the inhibitory effect of fresh phenolic-rich fruit powders on PAHs formation in charcoal-grilled meats remains unknown. To clarify the application of the fruit powders, 15 experimental groups were conducted. All pretreatment techniques (spraying, marinating, and mixing) were applied across all four freeze-dried fruit powders (lemon, guava, papaya, and mango). Each method was systematically tested with each fruit powder to evaluate its effect on inhibiting the formation of the four PAHs (BaA, CHR, BbF, and BaP) in charcoal-grilled pork belly and loin. Firstly, guava powder exhibited the highest phenolic content and antioxidant activity compared to the lemon, papaya, and mango powders (p < 0.05), among which the main phenolic compounds were ellagic acid, quercetin, and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). Further, marination of pork belly with guava powder exhibited the highest inhibition rate of PAHs (94.8%), followed by lemon (91.1%), papaya (89.8%), and mango (89.0%), with a statistically significant difference at p < 0.05. The reduction in estimated daily intake (EDI) and the increase in the margin of exposure (MOE) indicate that consuming grilled meat treated with these fruit powders poses no safety concerns and may potentially reduce health risks. Finally, the sensory evaluation showed that marinating with guava powder did not perceptibly affect the sensory attributes of the meat. Overall, this study provides a potent strategy for inhibiting the formation of PAHs in meat during charcoal grilling by incorporating fruit powder while preserving sensory qualities.

Smoked sausages of bovine meat produced in North Macedonia as a source of pro-technological lactic acid bacteria and coagulase-negative cocci

Smoked bovine sausages, traditional meat products from the Balkan Peninsula, are rich in microbial diversity and represent potential sources of pro-technological microorganisms. This study aimed to characterize these sausages from three different producers collected in green markets of North Macedonia. The analyses included physico-chemical (proximate composition, pH, aw), morpho-textural (color and texture), and microbiological assessments (viable plate counts). Moreover, an isolation campaign was conducted to identify and characterize pro-technological microorganisms. Significant variability was observed in moisture content (ranging from 33.70 to 48.61 %), hardness, and color among samples from different producers. Samples from producer 2 showed the lowest pH (mean ∼4.90) and the highest loads of lactic acid bacteria (up to ∼9 log cfu g-1). Coagulase-negative cocci ranged between 4.84 and 7.47 log cfu g-1. No potential pathogenic bacteria were detected. A total of 30 isolates, primarily Latilactobacillus sakei, Staphylococcus equorum, and Staphylococcus casei, were identified. Isolates of L. sakei S7, S13, and S27 showed strong in-vitro acidification performance, together with the production of exopolysaccharides (EPS), and protease activity. S. equorum isolates S1 and S2 exhibited protease and lipase activities, while isolates S. casei S21 and S28 showed notable lipase and protease activities, along with the production of EPS. Additionally, all S. equorum isolates, except S2, showed nitrate reductase activity, one of the key features able to affect sausage color. These findings highlighted the pro-technological traits of these microbial isolates, suggesting their potential use as starter or adjunct cultures in the meat industry to enhance product quality and safety.

The Association between Individual Food Groups, Limbic System White Matter Tracts, and Episodic Memory: Initial Data from the Aiginition Longitudinal Biomarker Investigation of Neurodegeneration (ALBION) Study

(1) Background: Many studies link food intake with clinical cognitive outcomes, but evidence for brain biomarkers, such as memory-related limbic white matter (WM) tracts, is limited. We examined the association between food groups, limbic WM tracts integrity, and memory performance in community-dwelling individuals. (2) Methods: We included 117 non-demented individuals (ALBION study). Verbal and visual episodic memory tests were administered, and a composite z-score was calculated. Diffusion tensor imaging tractography was applied for limbic WM tracts (fornix-FX, cingulum bundle-CB, uncinate fasciculus-UF, hippocampal perforant pathway zone-hPPZ). Food intake was evaluated through four 24-h recalls. We applied linear regression models adjusted for demographics and energy intake. (3) Results: We found significant associations between (a) higher low-to-moderate alcohol intake and higher FX fractional anisotropy (FA), (b) higher full-fat dairy intake and lower hPPZ FA, and (c) higher red meat and cold cuts intake and lower hPPZ FA. None of the food groups was associated with memory performance. (4) Conclusions: Despite non-significant associations between food groups and memory, possibly due to participants' cognitive profile and/or compensatory mechanisms, the study documented a possible beneficial role of low-to-moderate alcohol and a harmful role of full-fat dairy and red meat and cold cuts on limbic WM tracts.

Characterizing the composition of volatile compounds in different types of Chinese bacon using GC-MS, E-nose, and GC-IMS

Chinese bacon is highly esteemed by consumers worldwide due to its unique aroma. The composition of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) varies significantly among different types of Chinese bacon. This study analyzed the VOCs of Chinese bacon from Sichuan, Hunan, Guangxi, and Shaanxi provinces using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), an electronic nose (E-nose), and gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (GC-IMS). The results demonstrate that the combination of GC-MS and GC-IMS effectively distinguishes Chinese bacon from different regions. Notably, Guangxi bacon lacks a smoky aroma, which sets it apart from the other types. However, it contains many esters that play a crucial role in its flavor profile. In contrast, phenols, including guaiacol, which is typical in smoked bacon, were present in the bacon from Sichuan, Hunan, and Shaanxi but were absent in Guangxi bacon. Furthermore, Hunan bacon exhibited a higher aldehyde content than Sichuan bacon. 2-methyl-propanol and 3-methyl-butanol were identified as characteristic flavor compounds of Zhenba bacon. This study provides a theoretical foundation for understanding and identifying the flavor profiles of Chinese bacon. Using various analytical techniques to investigate the flavor compounds is essential for effectively distinguishing bacon from different regions.

Effects of potential key substances in woodchips smoldering smoke on the formation of heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Frankfurter sausages

The Frankfurter sausages smoked with beech, oak, and alder, respectively, were used to clarify the underlying impact of the smoke chemical composition on the levels of heterocyclic amines (HAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The result indicated that different wood types significantly affected the profiles of target substances in food matrices. The beech-smoked samples had lower contents of total free HAs (5.98-6.80 ng/g dry-weight-DW), PAH4 (3.31-3.83 ng/g DW), and PAH8 (10.0-10.8 ng/g DW), whereas the alder pyrolysis usually led to higher hazardous residues (8.26-9.19 ng/g DW of total free HAs, 4.24-6.60 ng/g DW of PAH4 and 14.1-23.3 ng/g DW of PAH8). In addition, the differences in smoke chemical composition were attributed to the different proportions of 15 key identified substances. Among them, two aldehydes (5-methyl-furfural & furfural) and two phenols (phenol & 5-hydroxymaltol) may have synergistic or competitive inhibitory effects on the formation of HAs and PAHs in smoked meat products.

Influence of Fish Species and Wood Type on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Contamination in Smoked Fish Meat

Despite the numerous sensory, organoleptic and nutritional qualities, fish meat may also contain some toxic compounds with negative effects on human health. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a class of chemicals resulting from incomplete combustion, found at high levels in thermally processed foods, especially in smoked fish. This research studied the influence of wood type (beech, plum and oak) and fish species (rainbow trout, carp and Siberian sturgeon) on PAH contamination in hot smoked fish. Benzo(a)Piren, Σ4PAHs and Σ15PAHs were considered as main indicators of PAH contamination. All-PAHs was quantified in all samples, indicating a specific dynamic of values due to the influence of variables. Generally, BaP (benzo(a)pyrene) content in the samples ranged from 0.11 µg/kg to 8.63 µg/kg, Σ4PAHs from 0.70 µg/kg to 45.24 µg/kg and Σ15PAHs from 17.54 µg/kg to 450.47 µg/kg. Thus, plum wood promoted the highest levels of PAHs, followed by oak and beech. Carp and Siberian sturgeon presented the highest concentrations of PAHs. Some of these parameters had levels that exceeded the limits allowed by legislation via Commission Regulation (EU) No 835/2011. Results revealed BaP levels > 2 µg/kg when plum wood was used in rainbow trout (4.04 µg/kg), carp (4.47 µg/kg) and Siberian sturgeon (8.63 µg/kg). Moreover, the same trend was found for Σ4PAHs, which exceeded 12 µg/kg in rainbow trout (17.57 µg/kg), carp (45.24 µg/kg) and Siberian sturgeon (44.97 µg/kg).

Effect of lignin on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked and grilled meat products

In order to explore the influence of wood types on formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in traditional smoked and grilled meat products, the effect of lignin in woods on formation of PAHs was investigated in meat model systems. The results showed that PAHs formation was much dependent on the heating conditions. The addition of lignin led to significantly increased PAHs, which being connected with lignin structure. In comparison, the formation of PAHs was more facilitated by lignin with G structure than that with G/S structure. However, further study of adding lignin precursors demonstrated that lignin precursors with S structure were more favorable to the formation of PAHs than those with G structure. It was proposed that the relative content and activity of G/S structure of lignin in wood played a significant role in the formation of PAHs, which might provide theoretical reference for inhibition of PAHs fundamentally.

Spotlight on autochthonous microbiota, morpho-textural characteristics, and volatilome of a traditional Polish cold-smoked raw sausage

The aim of the present study was to obtain information on the bacterial diversity of traditional Polish cold-smoked raw sausages (Kiełbasa polska wędzona) manufactured by two artisanal producers using different selective growth media and a metataxonomic analysis. Physico-chemical and morpho-textural characteristics were also carried out, together with Microextraction-Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (HS-SPMEGC/MS) to study the volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The results overall obtained allowed a picture of the microbiota, the morpho-textural characteristics, and the volatilome of traditional Polish cold-smoked raw sausages (Kiełbasa polska wędzona) to be drawn for the first time. In more detail, viable counting revealed active populations of presumptive lactobacilli, enterococci, coagulase-negative cocci, and a few spoilage microorganisms typically occurring in raw meat products. The metataxonomic analysis revealed the dominance of Latilactobacillus sakei occurring with a relative frequency between 77% and 89%. Pediococcus pentosaceus, Weissella hellenica, and Leuconostoc carnosum were detected among the minority taxa. In the sausages herein studied, no histamine levels of concern were detected. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) performed on the Amplicon Sequence Variants (ASVs) did not show significant differences in the microbiota composition among producers. The HS-SPMEGC/MS analysis allowed the detection and identification of more than 90 volatile components belonging to ten main classes, namely: aldehydes, ketones, esters and acetates, acids, alcohols, phenols, furans, sulphur compounds, terpenoids, and benzene derivatives. The detected VOCs originated from spices, smoke, and microbial metabolism. The PCA of volatile compounds allowed differences between the sausage samples of the two producers to be identified.

Effects of Different Frying Oils Composed of Various Fatty Acids on the Formation of Multiple Hazards in Fried Pork Balls

Oil oxidation products can react with food substrates to produce harmful substances, and oil saturation is closely related to oil oxidation in the process of frying. Therefore, the influence of the composition of fatty acids in oil on the formation of harmful substances in fried pork balls was explored. The five frying oils with the lowest unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) content, ranked in ascending order, were palm oil, peanut oil, soybean oil, corn oil, and colza oil (64.94%, 79.94%, 82.65%, 83.07%, and 92.26%, respectively). The overall levels of four harmful substances (acrylamide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic amines, and trans fatty acids) found in the oil used to fry pork balls followed a descending order: canola oil, corn oil, peanut oil, soybean oil, and palm oil (33.66 μg/kg, 27.17 μg/kg, 23.45 μg/kg, 18.67 μg/kg, and 13.19 μg/kg, respectively). This order was generally consistent with the trend in the content of UFAs. Therefore, the formation of harmful substances is closely related to the saturation of oil. Compared with other frying oils, soybean oil as a household oil produces relatively low amounts of harmful substances and has less negative impact on the quality (oil content, moisture content, and higher protein digestibility) of fried products.

Methods of Minimizing Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Content in Homogenized Smoked Meat Sausages Using Different Casings and Variants of Meat-Fat Raw Material

To ensure food safety and protect human health, the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination in model smoked-pork meat products were examined to select which type of casing and variant of raw material contributes to minimizing the content of PAHs in the final products. The sausages were smoked in a steam smoke chamber with an external smoke generator. The determination of PAHs was performed using the QuEChERS-HPLC-FLD/DAD method. The analyzed products met the requirements of Commission Regulation (EU) No. 835/2011 on the maximum permissible levels of PAHs. Statistically higher sums of 19 PAHs, including 15 heavy and 4 marker PAHs, were stated in smoked sausages in natural and cellulose casings. Synthetic casings like collagen and polyamide exhibited better barriers against PAH contamination than cellulose and natural casings. For each type of casing, significantly higher concentrations of PAHs were found in the external parts of the products. An increase in the fat content of the raw material increased the levels of PAH contamination in the products, regardless of the casing. Therefore, in industrial practice, the selection of an appropriate type of casing and raw material with the lowest possible fat content can be an effective method for reducing PAH levels in the interior of smoked meat products.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in cooked (tandoori) chicken and associated health risk

Tandoori cooking is a popular food preparation method in India involving a unique combination of grilling, baking, barbecuing, and roasting processes. This study determined the levels of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in tandoori chicken and assessed the associated health risk. The sum of 16 PAHs concentration ranged from 25.4 to 3733 μg/kg with an average of 440 ± 853 μg/kg. Analyzed samples demonstrated major contribution of 2, 3, and 4 ring PAHs. Diagnostic ratios identified combustion and high-temperature processes as the main source favoring PAHs generation in these samples. Benzo(a)pyrene equivalents and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) estimates for different population groups (boys, girls, adult males, adult females, elderly males, elderly females) associated with dietary intake of these products ranged from 6.88E-05 to 4.13E-03 and 1.63E-08 to 1.72E-06, respectively. Since the ILCR values fell within the safe limits (1E-06, i.e., nonsignificant), the consumption of tandoori chicken may be considered as safe. The study emphasizes the need for extensive studies on PAHs formation in tandoori food products.

The impact of temperature-controlled smoldering smoking on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic amines contents in Frankfurter-type sausages

The impact of temperature-controlled smoldering smoking conditions on the accumulations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heterocyclic amines (HAs) in Frankfurter-type sausages was investigated. Depending on the temperature, smoking can be divided into two phases: an unstable pyrolysis stage (≈ 200 s) and a stable pyrolysis stage (>200 s), which had different effects on hazardous substances contents. The unstable pyrolysis stage, which contributed 66.9 ∼ 89.6% of PAH accumulations by comparing with sausages smoked for 15 min, has significant impact on high PAH residues. By contrast, the contents of HAs showed steady increase trends with smoking time. Few types of free-HAs with low concentrations (3.05 ∼ 22.9 ng/g DW), but more types of bound-HAs with much higher levels (10.8 ∼ 396 ng/g DW) were found. In addition, the formation of some HAs followed the first-order reaction model. However, the detailed formation mechanisms of PAHs and HAs under temperature-controlled smoldering smoking conditions remain to be studied.

A multi-pathway exposure assessment for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons among residents in the Athabasca oil sands region, Canada

Due to increasing emissions from ongoing development of the oil sands in Northern Alberta, Canada, there is concern that local residents and organisms are experiencing elevated exposures to hazardous contaminants. We modified an existing human bioaccumulation model (ACC-Human) to represent the local food chain in the Athabasca oil sands region (AOSR), the focus of oil sands development in Alberta. We used the model to assess the potential exposure to three polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) among local residents that have a high intake of locally sourced traditional foods. To place these estimates into context, we complemented them with estimated PAH intake through market foods and smoking. Our approach was able to produce realistic body burdens of the PAHs in aquatic and terrestrial wildlife and in humans, both in magnitude and with respect to the relative difference between smokers and non-smokers. Over the model simulation period (1967-2009), market food was the dominant dietary exposure route for phenanthrene and pyrene, while local food, and in particular local fish, dominated the intake of benzo[a]pyrene. Exposure to benzo[a]pyrene therefore was also predicted to increase over time in concert with expanding oil sands operations. Those smoking at the average rate of Northern Albertans take in an additional amount of all three PAHs that is at least as large as dietary intake. Estimated daily intake rates are below toxicological reference thresholds for all three PAHs. However, daily intake of BaP in adults is only ∼20 fold below those thresholds and is predicted to increase. Key uncertainties in the assessment included the effect of food preparation on the PAH content in food (e.g., smoking of fish), the limited availability of market food contamination data specific to Canada, and the PAH content of the vapor phase of first-hand cigarette smoke. Considering the satisfactory model evaluation, ACC-Human AOSR should be suited to making predictions of future contaminant exposure based on development scenarios in the AOSR or in response to potential emission reduction efforts. It should also be applicable to other organic contaminants of concern released by oil sands operations.

Levels, enrichment characteristics and dietary intake risk of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin/furans in traditional smoked pork

The concentrations and TEQs of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin/furans (PCDD/Fs) in traditional smoked pork were significantly higher than those in raw pork, and mainly distributed in the surface layer. The main enriched congeners during traditional smoking were 2378-TCDF, 12378-PeCDF, 23478-PeCDF, 1234678-HpCDF, OCDF, 1234678-HpCDD and OCDD. The ability of each congener to transfer from the surface to the inner part was various. According to the dietary habits of local residents, PCDD/Fs in more than half of the traditional smoked pork samples posed a potential carcinogenic risk, and the risk in the surface samples were 1.02-10.2 times that of the corresponding inner samples. Some variables might be the important factors affecting the concentration of PCDD/Fs in smoked pork, such as the duration of smoking and the kind of fuel. It is recommended to achieve lower risk by reducing the consumption of smoked pork, especially the surface layer of smoked pork, and innovating traditional smoking technologies.

The Effect of Direct and Indirect Barbecue Cooking on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Formation and Beef Quality

Herein, the effect of direct and indirect barbecue cooking processes, including different cooking degrees (medium and well done), on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and on certain quality parameters (water content, cooking loss, pH, lipid oxidation) of beef meat was examined. While no significant effect (p > 0.05) of the cooking method was detected on the water content, cooking loss, ∑PAH4 [the sum of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), benzo[a]anthracene (BaA), chrysen (Chry), and benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF)], and ∑PAH8 [the sum of BaP, BaA, Chry, benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF), dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DahA), benzo[g,h,i]perylene (Bghip), and indeno [1,2,3-cd]pyrene (IncdP)] content, it was determined that it had a significant effect on pH (p < 0.05) and lipid oxidation (TBARS, p < 0.01). While the cooking degree did not have a significant effect (p > 0.05) on the TBARS value, it had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on the water content and pH value, and a very significant effect (p < 0.01) on the cooking loss. While BaA and BaP compounds were detected in all barbecued samples, the DahA compound could not be detected in any of the samples. Varying levels of BaA (up to 5.62 ng/g), Chry (up to 0.43 ng/g), BbF (LOD-..-LOQ), BkF (LOD-..-LOQ), BaP (up to 0.49 ng/g), BghiP (up to 0.82 ng/g), and IncdP (up to 4.99 ng/g) compounds were determined in the samples. While the ∑PAH4 contents varied between 0.71 and 6.35 ng/g, the ∑PAH8 contents varied between 1.12 and 11.34 ng/g. While the increase in cooking level did not affect the ∑PAH4 content, it caused a significant increase in the ∑PAH8 content. The highest BaP (0.49 ng/g), ∑PAH4 (6.35 ng/g), and ∑PAH8 (11.34 ng/g) contents were detected in the meat samples that were well cooked on the barbecue by the direct method. The results have proven that PAHs are formed at varying levels in both meat samples cooked on the barbecue by the direct method and the indirect method. On the other hand, it has been determined that even if 100 g of the meat with the highest BaP and ∑PAH4 content is eaten, the exposure amount remains far below the limit values specified for PAHs. However, paying close attention to the barbecue cooking process is still recommended.

Using fly larvae to convert food waste for growing Oujiang color common carps: health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

The present study used Chrysomya megacephala larvae (CML) to transform food waste into safe and high-quality fish feed to substitute fish meal as a source of protein for growing Oujiang color common carps followed by a human health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The results showed the ∑PAH concentration in the CML fed with food waste ranged from 50 to 370 μg kg^-1, and the most abundant PAH compound in the CML was BaP, contributing 59-84% of ∑PAHs. The Pearson correlation analysis results indicated no correlation between the ∑PAH concentrations and the culture substrate ratio (p > 0.05). Concentrations of BaP in the CML decreased with the increase of breeding density (p < 0.01). The residues as organic fertilizers have no potential ecological risk for PAHs. The biotransformed larva meal was used to partially or completely replace the fish meal as supplementary protein in the experimental feeds (T₀, 0%; T₅₀, 50%; T₁₀₀, 100%). No significant difference (p < 0.05) of survival rate, lipid, and protein content in Oujiang color common carp was noted among T₀, T₅₀, and T₁₀₀ fish feeds. Concentrations of ∑PAHs in Oujiang color common carp fed with the CML fish feeds all met the food safety standards in the European Union (EU). Furthermore, the consumption of Oujiang color common carps fed with the CML feed does not pose any health risks of PAHs for humans.

Effect of Temperature Range and Kilning Time on the Occurrence of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Malt

Kilning is an integral part of malt production; it ensures grain and enzyme preservation. Kilning temperatures can range between 80 and 220 °C, depending on the type of malt that is being produced. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are prone to appear at higher temperatures and are generally designated as undesirable in food and beverages. Sixteen PAHs are framed in legislation, but there is a lack of scientific data related to PAHs in malt, malt-related foods (bread, cookies) and beverages (whisky, malted non-alcoholic beverages). The aim of this paper was to assess and quantify the occurrence of different PAHs in malts exposed to different kilning temperatures (50-210°) over a variable time frame. The results indicate that some of the PAHs detected at lower temperatures disappear when malt is exposed to high temperatures (>100 °C). Phenanthrene was no longer detected at 100 °C and indeno [1,2,3-cd] pyrene at 130 °C, while fluorene, anthracene and benzo (a) anthracene were not quantified at 170 °C. The results of this research can be implemented in food safety legislation since foods available to children utilize malted flour (bread, cookies, bakery goods, etc.) due to its enzymatic activity or as a colour additive.

Bridging traditional and scientific knowledge on reindeer meat smoking - a pilot study

Smoking reindeer meat in a traditional Sámi lávvu (tent) is a knowledgeable and long tradition for food preservation among Sámi reindeer herders. However, due to the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) during smoking, scientists associate smoked meat with human health risks. PAH contamination of smoked food depends on the smoking method, the temperature and the wood species. The smoking temperature and the PAH contaminations of Sámi traditional lávvu-smoked reindeer products yet remain uninvestigated. To remedy this knowledge gap, we developed a unique co-produced lávvu-laboratory pilot study for temperature measurements and PAH analysis of smoked reindeer meat with different Arctic wood species (willow, birch and juniper) and plant parts (logs and twigs). Our study confirms reindeer herders understanding, that birch wood, and especially birch twigs, generate higher smoking temperatures than willow. Except reindeer meat smoked with birch twigs, PAH levels of analysed reindeer meat cuts were lower than EU recommended maximum levels. However, all smoked reindeer fat samples showed much elevated PAH contaminations. Our results demonstrate the importance of co-production including both scientific and traditional knowledge in research for increased understanding of Indigenous peoples' traditional food smoking and to insure healthy traditional smoked Arctic products.

Risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in meat and edible oils: results of a total diet study in South Korea

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) constitute carcinogens. In this study, the risk of PAHs being consumed through meat and edible oils was assessed using a total diet study. Results were monitored by applying the toxic equivalency factor of benzo[a]pyrene; among each category, this factor was highest in grilled beef chitterlings (1.35 μg/kg), grilled Wiener sausages (1.20 μg/kg), fried chicken wings (0.70 μg/kg), and stir-fried perilla oil (1.29 μg/kg). The chronic daily intake was calculated, and risk characterization was estimated by applying the margin of exposure using the benchmark dose approach. Most samples analyzed in our study were denoted as having no concern; however, the intake group of stir-fried beef chitterlings, pan-fried pink sausage, deep-fried pork loin, and grilled duck was regarded as possible concern, and grilled chicken was assessed as having low concern. PAH changes must be monitored on a regular basis.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-022-01137-5.

Effects of Various Processing Methods on the Nutritional Quality and Carcinogenic Substances of Bactrian Camel (Camelus bactrianus) Meat

Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) meat, as a product of national geographical indication, is mainly produced in the northwest regions of China. This study systematically evaluated the edible quality, nutritional quality, and carcinogenic substances of Bactrian camel meat using different heating times in four thermal processing methods (steaming, boiling, frying, and microwaving). Compared with the control group (uncooked), the thermal processing of meat demonstrated lower redness and moisture content; higher shear force values and protein, fat, and ash contents; and sharply increased the levels of amino acids and fatty acids. The moisture content of the fried and microwave-treated meat was significantly lower than that of the steamed and boiled meat (p < 0.05). Steamed meat was higher in protein but had a lower fat content than the other three processing methods (p < 0.05). Compared with frying and microwaving, meat from steaming and boiling showed higher levels of essential amino acids and lower shear force values. However, the smoke generated during frying led to the formation of large amounts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and nitrites, and the levels of these substances increased with heating time. In addition, with the extension of the heating time, the shear force of the meat also increased gradually (p < 0.05). In summary, steaming and boiling were proven to be suitable processing methods for preserving better nutritional values while delivering less carcinogenic risk. With our results, we have established a nutritional database for Bactrian camel meat, providing a reference for selecting a suitable thermal processing method.

Evaluation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Smoked Cheeses Made in Poland by HPLC Method

Smoked cheeses are particularly popular among consumers for their flavor and aroma. Of interest, therefore, is the health aspect related to the likelihood of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are known carcinogens found in smoked products. Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the occurrence of 15 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in smoked and non-smoked cheeses purchased in Poland to monitor their safety. The level of selected PAHs in cheese samples was determined using the HPLC-DAD-FLD method. Most of the cheeses tested met the maximum level of benzo[a]pyrene (2 μg/kg) and the sum of benz[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and benzo[a]pyrene (12 μg/kg) established for these products. However, all the cheeses studied in this work had relatively low amounts of the sum of these compounds compared to the information available in the cheese literature, ranging from Collapse

Key Words

• European Union priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
• food analysis
• organic contaminants
• smoked cheeses

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MESH Headings

• Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons/analysis
• Chrysenes
• Smoke
• Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid
• Benzo(a)pyrene/analysis
• Poland
• Acenaphthenes
• Cheese
• Fluorenes
• Phenanthrenes
• Carcinogens
• Anthracenes

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Grants

• Project No. 010/RID/2018/19 Project financially supported by the Minister of Education and Science under the program entitled "Regional Initiative of Excellence" for the years 2019-2022, Project No. 010/RID/2018/19, amount of funding 12.000.000 PLN.

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Affiliation(s)

Magdalena Polak-Śliwińska Department of Commodity Science and Food Analysis, Faculty of Food Science, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Plac Cieszyński 1, 10-726 Olsztyn, Poland
Beata Paszczyk Department of Commodity Science and Food Analysis, Faculty of Food Science, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Plac Cieszyński 1, 10-726 Olsztyn, Poland
Mariusz Śliwiński Dairy Industry Innovation Institute Ltd., Kormoranów 1, 11-700 Mrągowo, Poland

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Determination of p-cresol levels in smoked meat products using QuEChERS method and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

p-Cresol is known as an environmental chemical contaminant that has toxic effects on humans. However, the presence of p-cresol in smoked foods has been seen as a flavor constituent. The present study had as objective to optimize and validate the QuEChERS method for the determination of p-cresol in beef hamburger, which was chosen as a representative matrix for six smoked meat products. The analysis was performed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The method showed limit of quantification (LOQ) of 40 µg kg^-1, linearity between 40 and 200 µg kg^-1, recovery higher than 70% and relative standard deviation lower than 14%. The proposed method was applied to six different smoked foods and the p-cresol concentration ranged from 148 to 872 µg kg^-1 and only the turkey breast pate showed a concentration lower than the LOQ. The descending order of p-cresol level in smoked samples was: sausage > shredded tuna > salami > turkey breast > hamburger > turkey breast pate. In three analyzed samples, the results showed that the p-cresol migrates from the surface to the food inner. Finally, the proposed method was simple and efficient to quantify high levels of this contaminant in smoked foods and it could be a useful tool for the monitoring food safety and quality.

The Effect of Partial Substitution of Beef Tallow on Selected Physicochemical Properties, Fatty Acid Profile and PAH Content of Grilled Beef Burgers

The objective of this study was to analyze the impact of partial replacement of beef tallow with sunflower, canola, linseed, olive oil and milk fat on physical properties, oxidation stability, fatty acid profile and PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) content of beef burgers. Studies have shown a strong relationship between the fatty acid profile and the PAH content (especially of the heavy PAHs). The partial replacement of beef tallow with oils and milk fat (MF) contributed to a change in the fatty acid profile and a reduction in the hardness of the burgers. The highest PAH content was found in samples with canola oil (CO), which had the highest levels of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), and in the control group (CON) without fat substitution, which had the highest levels of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and trans conformations. Substitution of animal fat with vegetable oils contributed to a change in the color of the burgers’ surface, as there was a statistically significant increase in the L* color component and a decrease in the a* component. The burgers with canola oil (CO) and linseed oil (LO) were the most susceptible to oxidation, whereas the burgers with reduced fat content (CON_LOW FAT) were the most stable in terms of oxidation, where the malondialdehyde (MDA) content was 32.8% lower compared with the control group (CON). The studies confirm that partial replacement of beef tallow with vegetable oils and milk fat and reduction in fat content in burgers to be grilled can be an effective way to change their fatty acid profile and reduce the cyclization reaction of organic compounds leading to the formation of PAH. Correlation coefficient analysis showed that there is a relationship between fatty acid profile and the presence of selected PAHs in grilled beef burgers. The results of this study indicate that replacing beef tallow with vegetable oils is a promising approach in designing meat products with controlled PAH content.

Risk Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Smoked Sardinella sp. in Ghana: Impact of an Improved Oven on Public Health Protection

An improved fish smoking oven called FAO-Thiaroye Technique (FTT) has been introduced in Ghana and other countries in the Global South as a technical intervention for the high levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in traditionally smoked fish produced in those regions. This study evaluated the extent to which the intervention reduces consumer exposure to PAHs (considering benzo(a)pyrene [BaP] as a marker) in smoked fish, using Ghana as a case. Smoked Sardinella sp. were sampled from two traditional ovens (Chorkor smoker and metal drum oven) and the FTT and their PAH levels were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Samples of the product were also purchased from informal markets in three selected regions of Ghana and analyzed for their PAH levels. Cross-sectional consumer surveys were conducted in the selected regions to determine intakes of the commodity. A probabilistic risk assessment of PAH was then done by the margin of exposure (MoE) approach. BaP MoE as low as 1,060 and 752 were obtained for products from the traditional ovens and the informal markets, respectively, whereas the lowest value for FTT products was approximately 161,000. MoE values less than 10,000 were considered to denote a serious public health concern requiring risk management action. Therefore, the findings suggest that there is a potential health concern of high consumer exposure to PAHs in traditionally smoked fish in Ghana, and that the FTT is a technically viable intervention for the problem.

Consumption of Thermally Processed Meat Containing Carcinogenic Compounds (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines) versus a Risk of Some Cancers in Humans and the Possibility of Reducing Their Formation by Natural Food Additives-A Literature Review

(1) Background: Thermal treatment of high-protein food may lead to the formation of mutagenic and carcinogenic compounds, e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic aromatic amines. Frequent consumption of processed meat was classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as directly carcinogenic for humans. (2) Methods: A literature review was carried out based on a search of online databases for articles on consuming thermally processed meat containing carcinogenic compounds versus a risk of cancers in humans published between 2001 and 2021. (3) Results: A review of the current literature on the participation of PAHs and HAA in the formation of certain neoplasms indicates a positive relationship between diet and the incidences of many cancers, especially colon cancer. A simple way to obtain dishes with reduced contents of harmful compounds is the use of spices and vegetables as meat additives. These seasonings are usually rich in antioxidants that influence the mechanism of HAA and PAH synthesis in food. (4) Conclusions: As there is a growing risk of a cancer tendency because of exposing humans to PAHs and HAAs, it is extremely vital to find a simple way to limit carcinogenic compound synthesis in a processed proteinaceous food. Disseminating the knowledge about the conditions for preparing dishes with a reduced content of carcinogenic compounds could become a vital element of cancer prevention programs.

Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons using different extraction methods and HPLC-FLD detection in smoked and grilled meat products

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in meat products are formed, among others, as a by-product of thermal processing such as smoking or grilling. Due their highly toxic effects on the human organism, it is necessary to monitor PAH content in food products and develop appropriate analytical methods for their determination. The aim of this study was to compare PAH content in meat products subjected to smoking or grilling process. PAH content was determined using three different analytical methods, verified for efficiency using the external standard method. The results showed that smoking led to higher PAH contamination compared to grilling. Extraction by saponification and SPE method was the most effective for the detection and quantification of PAHs. The samples analyzed using this method showed the highest PAH content and recoveries. The results of the study showed a significant effect of the extraction method on the recovery levels and PAH content in meat.

Effect of Differentiated Relative Humidity of Air on the Quality of Traditional Speciality Guaranteed “Krakowska Sucha Staropolska Sausage”

The aim of the study was to determine the effects of air relative humidity (RH: 60 and 80%) during the drying process of “krakowska sucha staropolska” (KSS) sausages on selected quality characteristics. The composition and production process of KSS sausages complied the requirements of traditional specialities guaranteed. It was found that the use of lower RH of drying air allowed a time reduction of 20%. Lowering the RH of air during the drying process did not affect the cross-sectional colour and odour of the sausages, colour components, TBARS values, protein, fat and salt content. However, the acceleration of the drying process resulted in very dried outer layers and less dry interior of KSS sausages. As a result, the sausages had lower scores in the sensory evaluation of hardness and overall acceptability. For this reason, shortening the drying process of sausages by using air with lower relative humidity is not recommended.

Performances of the barrel kiln used in cottage industry for fish processing and effects on physicochemical characteristics and safety of smoked fish products

BACKGROUND

In the traditional food sector, the smoking process and smoking-drying process are widely used to increase the shelf-life of seafood products. The smoking process and smoking-drying process are mainly performed using barrel kiln and wood as fuel in many West African countries. The present study evaluated the performances of the barrel kiln and its effects on physicochemical characteristics and safety of smoked fish (SF) and smoked-dried fish (SDF). Twelve follow-ups were conducted with three experimental processors and 24 samples of fish collected at different steps of processing were analyzed in a laboratory using standard methods.

RESULTS

The extreme values of combustion temperature recorded during the smoking process (456.4 °C) and smoking-drying process (482.8 °C) were higher than 450 °C, the temperature at which wood pyrolysis generates polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Smoked fish were highly contaminated with PAHs, and showed maximal levels of benzo[a]pyrene (52.7 μg kg^-1 ) and PAH4 (i.e. sum of benzo[a]pyrene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and benz[a]anthracene) (290.9 μg kg^-1 ) exceeding the European Union limits by about 25-fold. After smoking of Scomber scombrus and smoking-drying of Cypselurus cyanopterus, no significant differences were recorded for lipid, protein and biogenic amine contents between fresh and processed fish, even if the histamine content of both fish exceeded the limit fixed by the European Union regulation.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained in the present study showed that smoked fish and smoked-dried fish produced using barrel kiln and wood fuel are highly contaminated by PAHs. Therefore, there is a need to improve the preservation practices of raw fish and smoking conditions to limit the contamination of end-products by PAHs known to be carcinogenic components for humans and to ensure consumer safety. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

The Content of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Slavonska slanina—Traditionally Smoked and Dry-Cured Bacon

The goal of this study was to determine the concentrations of 16 PAHs (PAH16) naphthalene—Nap, acenaphthylene—Anl, acenaphthene—Ane, fluorene—Flu, phenanthrene—Phen, anthracene—Ant, fluoranthene—Flt, pyrene—Pyr, benz[a]anthracene—BaA, chrysene—Chry, benzo[b]fluoranthene—BbF, benzo[k]fluoranthene—BkF, benzo[a]pyrene—BaP, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene—InP, dibenz[a,h]anthracene—DahA and benzo[g,h,i]perylene—BghiP) in Slavonska slanina traditionally smoked bacon over open fire and industrially smoked on a smoke generator with a heated plate. In the samples of Slavoska slanina smoked in a traditional manner, the presence of 11 out of 16 analyzed PAHs was determined (Nap, Anl, Ane, Fln, Ant, Phen, Flt, BaA, Pyr, BbF, BkF). In the samples smoked in industrial conditions, only 2 out of 16 (Nap, Anl) were quantified. In the samples smoked with open fire (the traditional method), PAH4 (BaA, BaP BbF, Chry) concentations were as follows: 14.84 μg kg−1 in the middle, 10.60 μg kg−1 on the surface and 17.37 μg kg−1 in the skin, while the PAH4 content in the samples smoked in industrial conditions were below the level of quantification (<LOQ). The content of carcinogenic BaP was below the limit of quantification in all investigated samples. These findings support the fact that traditional smoking may result in a product safe for consumption, as far as the prescribed legislative recommendations are concerned, but constant monitoring is still needed.

The concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in mother milk: A global systematic review, meta-analysis and health risk assessment of infants

Background

Bio-monitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contaminants in mother milk is essential to keep mothers and infants healthy against potential risks. The current study assesses the concentration of PAHs in mother milk through a meta-analytic and systematic review approach.

Methods

All the published studies up to December 2020 regarding the concentrations of various PAHs in mother milk were searched throughout major international databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Moreover, the possible carcinogenic and mutagenic risks to infants were evaluated based on the BaP (benzo[a]pyrenee) equivalent dose.

Results

According to the results of 13 articles included among 936 retrieved studies, the lowest and highest concentration of PAHs was (0.125 ng/g) and (76.36 ng/g) related to benz(a)anthracenem and 1-methylnaphthalene, respectively. The highest (9.830 ng/g) and lowest (0.009 ng/g) concentration of PAHs was related to Mexico and Japan, respectively. Besides, carcinogenetic and mutagenic risk assessment of the PAHs indicated that risk pattern was different across countries. It can be concluded that the consumption of mother milk is safe and does not pose a risk due to the ingestion of PAHs to the health of infant consumers.

Natamycin: a natural preservative for food applications-a review

Natamycin is a natural antimicrobial peptide produced by the strains of Streptomyces natalensis. It effectively acts as an antifungal preservative on various food products like yogurt, khoa, sausages, juices, wines, etc. Additionally, it has been used as a bio preservative and is listed as generally recognized as a safe ingredient for various food applications. In this review, natamycin properties, production methods, toxicity, and application as a natural preservative in different foods are emphasized. This review also focuses on optimal condition and process control required in natamycin production. The mode of action and inhibitory effect of natamycin on yeast and molds inhibition and its formulation and dosage to preserve various food products, coating, and hurdle applications are summarized. Understanding the scientific factors in natamycin's production process, its toxicity, and its efficiency as a preservative will open its practical application in various food products.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-021-00981-1.

A concise review towards defining the exposome of oesophageal cancer in sub-Saharan Africa

CONTEXT

Oesophageal cancer (EC) is among the common causes of illness and death among all cancers worldwide. Advanced EC has a poor prognosis, with worse outcomes observed in low-income settings. Oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is the most common EC histology reported globally, with the highest ESCC incidence rates in the 'Asian Belt' and the African EC corridor. While the aetiology of ESCC is well-documented in the 'Asian belt', data for the African EC corridor and the entirety of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are fewer.

OBJECTIVE

To help address gaps in ESCC aetiology in SSA, we critically evaluated evidence of lifestyle, environmental, and epigenetic factors associated with ESCC risk and discussed prospects of defining ESCC exposome.

DATA INCLUSION

Unlimited English and non-English articles search were made on PubMed Central and Web of Science databases from January 1970 to August 2021. In total, we retrieved 999 articles and considered meta-analyses, case-control, and cohort studies. The quality of individual studies was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa scale.

DATA EXTRACTION

Details extracted include the year of publication, country of origin, sample size, comparators, outcomes, study subjects, and designs.

DATA ANALYSIS

Together, we assessed 13 case-control studies and two meta-analyses for the effect of lifestyle or environmental exposures on ESCC risk. Again, we evaluated seven case-control studies and one meta-analysis regarding the role of epigenetics in ESCC tumorigenesis.

RESULTS

In general, evidence of ESCC aetiology points to essential contributions of alcohol, tobacco, hot beverages, biomass fuel, and poor oral health/hygiene, although more precise risk characterisation remains necessary.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that ESCC in SSA is a multifactorial disease initiated by several external exposures that may induce aberrant epigenetic changes. The expanding aetiological research in this domain will be enhanced by evidence synthesis from classical and molecular epidemiological studies spanning the external and internal exposome.

Nitrosamines and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Smoke-Cured Bacon (Larou) of Artisanal and Industrial Origin

The aim of this study was to compare the nitrosamines (NAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) of Chinese smoke-cured bacon (Larou) of artisanal and industrial origin. The results showed that the average pH and Aw values of family-made Larou products were lower than those of industrial Larou, which was opposite to the TBARS level. The contents of residual nitrite and PAH4 in two artisanal Larou were significantly higher than those of the other groups (p < 0.05). The highest NA content (10.78 μg/kg) was found in family-made Larou. A correlation analysis indicated that the relationships between residual nitrite contents and total PAH8 contents (τ = 0.692, p < 0.01) and total NAs contents (τ = 0.805, p < 0.01) were characterized with a positive correlation. A principal component analysis indicated that the Larou from the industrial sources had similar safety attributes, and was more stable than the Larou processed in an artisanal manner. Our data suggest that Larou produced in industrial conditions is suitable for consumption.

Health and safety aspects of traditional European meat products. A review

Meat products constitute one of the most important groups of traditional foods. Thanks to the unique and favorable organoleptic characteristics, and high quality, they are willingly chosen by consumers. Lately, there has been a growing concern over the health aspects of these products. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the nutritional value and factors affecting quality and health safety of traditional meat products on the basis of available literature. The study findings have revealed various issues with uniformity of traditional meat products. Products of the same name may differ substantially considering nutritional value. Reports also indicate that there are some discrepancies which can be attributed to product character (traditional/conventional). They mainly concern the content of moisture, protein, salt, fat, and fatty acid profile. Research suggests that traditional meat products may also be associated with some health safety issues, such as the presence of pathogens, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nitrate and nitrite residues, N-nitrosamines, biogenic amines and heavy metals.

Steam precooking, an effective pretreatment to reduce contamination with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in traditionally smoked shrimp

Abstract

Traditionally smoked shrimps are highly contaminated with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The effect of precooking methods such as boiling (7 and 15 min) and steaming (15 and 20 min) on shrimp smoking effectiveness was investigated through smoking duration and the change of moisture, protein content, and PAHs contamination. The consumer's perception of derived shrimps was highlighted by acceptability and Just-About-Right test using 7-point hedonic and 3-point scale respectively. Both precooking methods didn't affect the shrimp protein content while steaming reduced significantly moisture content. All the precooking methods reduced significantly the smoking duration with the lowest values for steaming. Smoking with or free from precooking increased significantly PAHs content of shrimp. Although, the PAHs trends showed similar pattern for both precooking methods, steaming during 20 min before smoking enables to have the shrimp with Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and sum of benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[a]anthracene, chrysene and BAP (PAH4) contents lower to the safety limit recommended by the European regulation. Irrespective of consumption forms, main sensory attributes of smoked steamed shrimps were scored as Just-About-Right by most consumers (65 to 88%). Steam precooking (20 min) is the better way for upgrading the shrimp safety with expected liking of consumers.

Graphical abstract