Between food delicacies and food taboos: A structural equation model to assess Western students' acceptance of Amazonian insect food

Consumers' perception of novel foods and the impact of heuristics and biases: A systematic review

According to the definition adopted in the European Union, novel foods are foods that were not consumed to a significant degree within the Union before May 15, 1997. This includes cultivated meat and insects. Novel foods are meant to play a critical role in the transition towards sustainable food systems. However, their success depends on whether and to what extent they will be incorporated into the diets at the population level. This review investigates consumers' perception of novel food products by narratively synthesising results on the influence of heuristics and biases triggered by emotions, personality traits, and socio-cultural factors. Empirical studies conducted in Western countries and published in English after 1997 were eligible, which led to 182 studies being included. Notably, most included studies focused on insects and cultivated meat. Disgust and fear are shown to be the main emotions driving rejection of novel foods, together with food neophobia and specific cultural norms common across countries included in the scope of the review. Familiarity with novel foods and curiosity both led to higher acceptance. Despite being investigated directly in a minority of studies, heuristics and related biases mostly fell under the "affect," the "natural-is-better," and the "trust" heuristics. The review also discusses to what extent consumers' perception reflects in the regulatory framework applicable to novel foods in the European Union, how it influences the regulation of insects and cultivated meat and which lessons can be drawn for the future of the regulatory framework.

Legal situation and consumer acceptance of insects being eaten as human food in different nations across the world-A comprehensive review

Insect consumption is a traditional practice in many countries. Currently, the urgent need for ensuring food sustainability and the high pressure from degrading environment are urging food scientists to rethink the possibility of introducing edible insects as a promising food type. However, due to the lack of the standardized legislative rules and the adequate scientific data that demonstrate the safety of edible insects, many countries still consider it a grey area to introduce edible insects into food supply chains. In this review, we comprehensively reviewed the legal situation, consumer willingness, acceptance, and the knowledge on edible insect harvesting, processing as well as their safety concerns. We found that, despite the great advantage of introducing edible insects in food supply chains, the legal situation and consumer acceptance for edible insects are still unsatisfactory and vary considerably in different countries, which mostly depend on geographical locations and cultural backgrounds involving psychological, social, religious, and anthropological factors. Besides, the safety concern of edible insect consumption is still a major issue hurdling the promotion of edible insects, which is particularly concerning for countries with no practice in consuming insects. Fortunately, the situation is improving. So far, some commercial insect products like energy bars, burgers, and snack foods have emerged in the market. Furthermore, the European Union has also recently issued a specific item for regulating new foods, which is believed to establish an authorized procedure to promote insect-based foods and should be an important step for marketizing edible insects in the near future.

The Potential Future of Insects in the European Food System: A Systematic Review Based on the Consumer Point of View

Edible insects recently gained attention as a potential contributor to the future sustainability of the food system. Insect farming has indeed shown to have environmental and nutritional benefits, but edible insects are still an unusual foodstuff in Europe. The purpose of this article is to analyze the barriers and drivers of insect consumption in Europe and to identify the most promising strategies to convince consumers to include insect-based products in their diets. To answer these research questions, a systematic review of the literature on the consumer's point of view about insects as food was performed. The results show that the main barrier to the development of this market is related to the psychological rejection of consumers induced by disgust toward entomophagy. To break down these barriers, it is essential to increase the general knowledge about the environmental and nutritional benefits of entomophagy. Furthermore, the limited size of the edible insect market appears to be a structural barrier. Expanding the reach of the market and consumer familiarity with edible insects will increase their acceptability. Finally, some product-related strategies are also highlighted. Furthermore, this article brings new knowledge about the effectiveness of the environmental motive in convincing consumers to try edible insects.

The Motivations for Consumption of Edible Insects: A Systematic Review

The consumption of edible insects (EI) is traditional in many parts of the world, but not in others. In fact, despite globalization and the multiple advantages pointed out about the consumption of EI, there are still many countries where entomophagy is seen with disgust and aversion. This systematic review aimed to examine the motivations that influence the consumption of EI in diverse cultures and understand if there are differences between Western countries (WC) and insect-eating countries (IEC). It further evaluated whether the degree of acceptability was influenced by the form of consumption of the insects (eating whole insects or foods containing insects). This literature review was conducted in November 2021 within three databases, Web of Science, PubMed and Scopus, according to the Preferred Reporting of Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis and using PRISMA directives. From a total of 245 studies, 31 were selected to be included in this review, based on the inclusion criteria defined: only original research articles, from 2010 or beyond, and written in English. The results indicated that the main motivations that determine the consumption of EI are related to gender, age, sustainability, nutritional value, sensory attributes, tradition/culture, food neophobia, disgust and familiarity/past experiences. Moreover, whereas in IEC, there is a greater focus on factors related to sensory attributes, availability, affordability and preferences, in WC, there is a bigger emphasis on determinants such as nutritional value, sustainability, benefits, familiarity/past experience, tradition/culture, food neophobia and disgust. Finally, it was observed that people in WC are more willing to accept food products containing insects rather than the whole insect, which is one of the most promising points to be addressed in the future. Overall, this review highlights that there are numerous factors influencing the consumption of edible insects, and differences between WC and IEC are clear in what concerns the motivations of consumers. Hence, targeting market segments and consumers' characteristics has to be present when designing strategies to incentivize the consumption of EI in WC as a part of a global strategy for sustainability of food systems.

An Analysis of the Ethical, Economic, and Environmental Aspects of Entomophagy

Population growth is causing a high demand for meat products, which, coupled with the current climate crisis, has fueled research into alternative protein sources. This review discusses the role of edible insects as an alternative protein source to complement our diet. We compare nutritional, environmental, economic, and food safety aspects between edible insects and current protein sources and conclude with a discussion on ethical considerations. Edible insects are a good protein source, with a higher average protein content than most protein-rich products we consume today. In addition, they provide fiber, fats such as monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and essential amino acids and are also rich in some minerals and vitamins. Product safety is yet to be studied; however, they have a much lower environmental impact than other intensive livestock products. Moreover, the production of edible insects is not expected to be expensive. The consumption of edible insects is a good alternative to conventional animal foods in modern times: a major climate crisis accompanied by numerous societal inequalities due to population growth.

Acceptance of Insect-Based Food Products in Western Societies: A Systematic Review

Consuming insects is a possible alternative to meat consumption that has few detrimental impacts on the environment and human health. Whether novel foods made from insects will become established in Western societies in the coming years depends largely on their acceptance by the respective populations. Numerous studies on the acceptance of insects as a novel food have already been conducted. In this systematic review, the main findings of quantitative, experimental, and tasting studies on the acceptance of insects as a novel food are summarized. The present paper is designed to serve as an orientation for practitioners in the food industry and provides information useful for the design of marketing strategies and target group-oriented product development. In addition, we highlight in which fields future studies could be conducted to further improve the understanding of the acceptance of insects as food in Western societies.

Driving Management of Novel Foods: A Network Analysis Approach

The food industry has confronted, in recent years, numerous issues including meeting a food demand for individual well-being in a sufficient and healthy manner, also due to the effects of the world population growth. In this scenario, alternative food sources may be a key element both for their contribution to food needs and for the promotion of sustainable and innovative production patterns. These food sources, new compared to traditional food styles, have been regulated by specific European Union regulations under the definition of novel foods. Their importance in the world has raised different topics of scientific research. The present paper aimed to seize the direction of scientific studies in the world focused on the thematic area of novel foods, from a management point of view. This study analyzed 209 papers and carried out a descriptive analysis and a network analysis of the thematic areas under examination also with the help of the software VOSviewer. The results highlighted the importance of scientific research in the world also for the contributions on the exploration of existing markets as well as for the innovative solutions it provides, which aim to expand market possibilities. Finally, the existence of several elements and factors, which may discourage the propensity to consume and therefore the development of the novel foods market, seemed to emerge, and for this reason, many surveys focused on finding solutions to overcome these potential obstacles.

Yellow Mealworm and Black Soldier Fly Larvae for Feed and Food Production in Europe, with Emphasis on Iceland

Insects are part of the diet of over 2 billion people worldwide; however, insects have not been popular in Europe, neither as food nor as a feed ingredient. This has been changing in recent years, due to increased knowledge regarding the nutritional benefits, the need for novel protein production and the low environmental impact of insects compared to conventional protein production. The purpose of this study is to give an overview of the most popular insects farmed in Europe, yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor, and black soldier fly (BSF), Hermetia illucens, together with the main obstacles and risks. A comprehensive literature study was carried out and 27 insect farming companies found listed in Europe were contacted directly. The results show that the insect farming industry is increasing in Europe, and the success of the frontrunners is based on large investments in technology, automation and economy of scale. The interest of venture capital firms is noticeable, covering 90% of the investment costs in some cases. It is concluded that insect farming in Europe is likely to expand rapidly in the coming years, offering new proteins and other valuable products, not only as a feed ingredient, but also for human consumption. European regulations have additionally been rapidly changing, with more freedom towards insects as food and feed. There is an increased knowledge regarding safety concerns of edible insects, and the results indicate that edible insects pose a smaller risk for zoonotic diseases than livestock. However, knowledge regarding risk posed by edible insects is still lacking, but food and feed safety is essential to put products on the European market.

An Insight into the Level of Information about Sustainability of Edible Insects in a Traditionally Non-Insect-Eating Country: Exploratory Study

Insects have been reported as a possible alternative solution to help feed the growing world population with less stress on the planet, thus contributing to the preservation of the environment and natural ecosystems. However, the consumption of edible insects (EIs), although culturally accepted for some communities, is not readily accepted for others. Hence this work explores the level of information that people in a traditionally non-insect-eating country have about the sustainability issues related with EIs, and also some possible reasons that could motivate their consumption. The study was based on a questionnaire survey and the results were explored by descriptive statistic tools, tree classification analysis, factor analysis and cluster analysis. The results showed that the level of information is still low in general, with most people not manifesting an opinion. However, some aspects are relatively familiar to the participants (88.9% know that the ecological footprint of insects is smaller than other meats and 86.9% know that they efficiently convert organic matter into protein). Factor and cluster analysis showed three classes: cluster 1—people not informed about the facts disclosed through the true statements and also not able to distinguish the false information; cluster 2—people not informed about the facts disclosed through the true statements but who were able to distinguish the false information; and cluster 3—people well informed about the facts disclosed through the true statements but who were marginally unable to distinguish the false information. It was also found that education, sex and professional area are the most relevant sociodemographic factors associated with the level of information, and the highest motivations to consume EIs are their contribution to preserve the environment and natural resources followed by being a more sustainable option (for 64.7% and 53.4% of participants, respectively). Hence it was concluded that, although some work still needs to be done to better inform people about EIs, there is already some conscientiousness that they constitute a good and more sustainable alternative to other types of meat.

Evaluating the Acceptance of Hemp Food in Australian Adults Using the Theory of Planned Behavior and Structural Equation Modelling

This research presents a mixed methods (qual-QUANT) approach to the evaluation of the intention to consume hemp foods in an Australian sample soon after its legalization, using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). Structural equation modeling was used to evaluate items developed from semi-structured interviews, with a focus on the TPB factors; attitudes toward hemp food consumption, subjective beliefs, and perceptions of control. Findings support the notion that consumers may be confused about associations between Cannabidiol (CBD) oil, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and hemp food produced from Cannabis sativa. Highly salient negative associations are mediated by the perception of positive aspects of CBD for some consumers, but the value placed on others' acceptance of hemp food is the greatest indicator of intention to consume hemp food products. It is suggested that greater education of consumers might allay fears borne of association of hemp food to either CBD or THC, and any move toward disassociation of hemp food to either entity would have positive repercussions for the hemp food industry. Findings have implications for other novel foods that carry highly salient negative associations for consumers.

Benefits and Challenges in the Incorporation of Insects in Food Products

Edible insects are being accepted by a growing number of consumers in recent years not only as a snack but also as a side dish or an ingredient to produce other foods. Most of the edible insects belong to one of these groups of insects such as caterpillars, butterflies, moths, wasps, beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, bees, and ants. Insect properties are analyzed and reported in the articles reviewed here, and one common feature is nutrimental content, which is one of the most important characteristics mentioned, especially proteins, lipids, fiber, and minerals. On the other hand, insects can be used as a substitute for flour of cereals for the enrichment of snacks because of their high content of proteins, lipids, and fiber. Technological properties are not altered when these insects-derived ingredients are added and sensorial analysis is satisfactory, and only in some cases, change in color takes place. Insects can be used as substitute ingredients in meat products; the products obtained have higher mineral content than traditional ones, and some texture properties (like elasticity) can be improved. In extruded products, insects are an alternative source of proteins to feed livestock, showing desirable characteristics. Isolates of proteins of insects have demonstrated bioactive activity, and these can be used to improve food formulations. Bioactive compounds, as antioxidant agents, insulin regulators, and anti-inflammatory peptides, are high-value products that can be obtained from insects. Fatty acids that play a significant role in human health and lipids from insects have showed positive impacts on coronary disease, inflammation, and cancer. Insects can be a vector for foodborne microbial contamination, but the application of good manufacturing practices and effective preservation techniques jointly with the development of appropriate safety regulations will decrease the appearance of such risks. However, allergens presented in some insects are a hazard that must be analyzed and taken into account. Despite all the favorable health-promoting characteristics present in insects and insects-derived ingredients, willingness to consume them has yet to be generalized.

Insights into the Predictors of Attitude toward Entomophagy: The Potential Role of Health Literacy: A Cross-Sectional Study Conducted in a Sample of Students of the University of Florence

In Western countries, one of the main barriers to entomophagy is repulsion toward insects. Few studies have investigated the factors that influence attitudes toward entomophagy. Therefore, we conducted a cross-sectional study involving a sample of 248 university students, focusing on disgust and other potential attributes that can influence insect consumption, including health literacy. We used a 17-item self-administered questionnaire. Consistent with the literature, two items were chosen as outcome variables to evaluate the predictors of the propensity to consume insects: "Have you ever eaten insects or insect-based products?" and "How disgusting do you find eating insects?" The data analysis shows that having already eaten insects is inversely associated with the level of disgust (OR: 0.1, p < 0.01); and it is positively associated with higher levels of health literacy (OR: 3.66, p > 0.01). Additionally, having some knowledge and information about entomophagy is inversely associated with a higher level of disgust (OR: 0.44, p = 0.03 and OR: 0.25, p = 0.03, respectively), while being female is positively associated with disgust (OR: 3.26, p < 0.01). Our results suggest the potential role of health literacy, in addition to other factors, in influencing the willingness to taste insects. However, further studies involving larger and non-convenience samples are needed to confirm our hypothesis.

Exploring the Acceptance of Entomophagy: A Survey of Italian Consumers

Insect-based food is not common in Europe, because most people do not consider insects to be edible, but rather a threat and a health risk. Fear and refusal to eat a new food product introduced into a culture is called food neophobia, which results in a hesitation to trying and experimenting with new foods. Although there is significant interest in this novel sector, there is a lack of research on the link between rejection, the level of food neophobia, and consumer behavior related to the introduction of insects into the diet. In this study, through 420 questionnaires, a specific experimental scale of insects was introduced which, together with a neophobia scale, analyzed the probability and the intention of respondents to consume insects. Another issue tested has been their intention to eat food containing insects. We observed that the analyses of the two scales produced different results, confirming the need for a specific scale to measure "insect phobia". This is important, since knowledge about consumer preferences for and barriers to using insects as human food sources is limited but necessary in order to set up commercialization strategies. The development of insect-based food offers physical health benefits and also improves the sustainability of the food industry.

The Eating Motivations Scale (EATMOT): Development and Validation by Means of Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM)

Introduction

The objective was to develop and validate an instrument that measures different determinants of people’s food choices and simultaneously accounts for a variety of factors: health, emotions, price and availability, society and culture, environment and politics, and marketing and advertising.

Methods

This is a cross-sectional study focusing on food choice determinants. It was carried out in 16 countries in 2017 and 2018. This study included 11,960 volunteer adult participants from different countries. The data was validated using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM).

Results

Validation using CFA with SEM revealed that multi-factor modelling produced first- and second-order models that could be used to define the EATMOT scale, the first presenting better fitting indices, with the goodness-of-fit and comparative-fit indices very close to 1, as well as root-mean-square-error-of-approximation, root-mean-square-residual and standardised-root-mean-square-residual at practically zero.

Conclusion

The validated EATMOT scale guarantees confidence in the information obtained through this instrument, and can be used in future studies to better understand food choice determinants in different geographical areas and help plan strategies to improve healthy eating patterns and diminish the burden of non-communicable diseases.

The Effect of Labelling and Visual Properties on the Acceptance of Foods Containing Insects

Introducing insects as a source of nutrients (e.g., protein) plays a key role in many countries' environmental policies. However, westerners generally reject insects as an ingredient of food products and meals. The aim of our study was to assess if explicitly labelling food as containing insects and/or implying it by manipulating the appearance of food influences the participants' perception of food products or their behavioral reaction to such products. Participants were asked to try a range of foods, none of which contained ingredients derived from insects. However, the experimental conditions varied with regard to food labelling (insect content) and appearance (traces of insect-like ingredients). We observed the participants' non-verbal behavioral reactions to the foods. Next, the respondents filled in a questionnaire evaluating the food's properties. Additionally, we asked the participants to fill in a set of questionnaires measuring other variables (food neophobia, disgust, variety seeking, etc.) The results showed that products labelled as containing insects are consumed with reluctance and in lower quantities despite their appearance. In addition, people with lower general neophobia and a higher tendency to seek variety tried the insect-labelled samples sooner than people from the other groups. Recommendations for marketing strategies are provided.

Study about Food Choice Determinants According to Six Types of Conditioning Motivations in a Sample of 11,960 Participants

Many aspects linked to personal characteristics, society and culture constitute some of the motivators that drive food choice. The aim of this work was to determine in what extent the eating behaviors of individuals are shaped by six different types of determinants, namely: health, emotions, price and availability, society and culture, environment and politics, and marketing and commercials. This is a descriptive cross-sectional study, involving a non-probabilistic sample of 11,960 participants from 16 countries. The objective of this work was to validate the questionnaire, so as to make it suitable for application in different contexts and different countries. For that, six scales were considered for validation by confirmatory factor analysis with structural equation modelling. The obtained results showed that the six individual scales evaluated presented good or very good fitting indices, with saturation in goodness-of-fit index in all cases. The values of chi-square ratio were 6.921 (for health), 0.987 (environment), 0.610 (emotions) and 0.000 in the remaining cases (convenience, society, marketing). Furthermore, the fit was perfect, with saturation for all indices, in three of the six models (convenience, society and marketing). The results of this wok allowed the validation of the six scales, and the assessing of different types of factors that can influence food choices and eating behaviors, namely in the categories: health, emotions, price and availability, society and culture, environment and politics, and marketing and commercials.

Entomophagy: A Narrative Review on Nutritional Value, Safety, Cultural Acceptance and A Focus on the Role of Food Neophobia in Italy

In recent years, the consumption of insects, or entomophagy, has produced an increasing interest amongst scientists and ecologists as a potential source of animal protein. Eating insects is also interesting in terms of low greenhouse gas emissions and low land use. In contrast to tropical countries, where most of the 2000 edible insect species are traditionally consumed, the concept of eating insects is still new to Western culture and diet. Culture and eating habits exert a great influence on what is considered edible in the Mediterranean area, especially in Italy, where the preservation of culinary traditions is a predominant factor affecting dietary behaviour. The purpose of this narrative paper is to provide an overview of the main topics related to entomophagy. The introduction presents some information about the nutrient content and safety aspects, the second part summarises the cultural acceptance of insect in the world, while the role of food neophobia on the intention to consume insects in Italy is focused on in part three. The discussion displays important viewpoints of previously published studies and based on these perspectives it can be concluded that the Italian diet is still clearly influenced by local tradition. In conclusion, in order to introduce insects into the Italian diet, psychological motivation has to be enhanced.

Eating edible insects as sustainable food? Exploring the determinants of consumer acceptance in Germany

The potential use of insects as a novel food source has recently attracted a great deal of attention in Europe, as they have many environmental and nutritional advantages and thus present a promising and sustainable animal protein source. Yet despite insects being a highly appreciated food in many parts of the world, consumer aversion remains as the major barrier to successful implementation in Europe. This study examines prospects of edible whole insect and processed insect-based food in Germany and investigates determining factors for acceptance. It does so to better understand consumers' attitudes toward insects and to derive approaches for insect food to become more appreciated. An online survey was conducted within the German population with a final sample of 393 participants. Several explanatory variables were established, and their influence on the acceptance of whole and processed insect products was analyzed by applying ordinal regressions to compare the market potential and hurdles of either option. The main results show a low willingness to try insects among Germans and the prevalence of psychological and personality barriers to consumption, such as disgust and food neophobia. Focusing on processed insect products is shown to be the most promising strategy to implement entomophagy, as an essential barrier to consumption is the visibility of the insects. However, whether this strategy would diminish the rejection of any insect product requires further investigation.