Dry-aged beef manufactured in Japan: Microbiota identification and their effects on product characteristics

Insights into Microbial Community and Its Enzymatic Profiles in Commercial Dry-Aged Beef

Dry-aged beef has gained interest worldwide in recent years due to its improved sensory attributes. This enhancement is thought to be partially driven by microbial activities, particularly lipolysis and proteolysis. In this study, dry-aged beef manufactured by seven commercial producers in China was analyzed. The pH value and total volatile base nitrogen value of dry-aged beef were determined. High-throughput amplicon sequencing of full-length 16S rRNA genes and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions was used to analyze the microbial community. A total of 207 proteolytic and lipolytic isolates were identified by sequencing 16S rRNA genes for bacteria and sequencing the D1/D2 region of 28S rRNA genes and the ITS region for fungi. The results revealed that the crust harbored greater numbers of bacteria and fungi than the interior. The bacterial community was dominated by Pseudomonas species, which were core members in both the crust and interior, while Brochothrix thermosphacta was identified as a core bacterium exclusively in the crust. The fungal community primarily constituted Candida sake, Kurtzmaniella species, and members of the phylum Chytridiomycota. Proteolytic and lipolytic isolates were mainly identified as Pseudomonas sp., B. thermosphacta, Carnobacterium maltaromaticum, Candida zeylanoides (teleomorph: Kurtzmaniella zeylanoides), C. sake, and Debaryomyces hansenii. Two strains of C. zeylanoides and C. sake exhibiting high proteolytic and lipolytic activities effectively hydrolyzed beef fat, myofibrillar protein, and sarcoplasmic protein. This study characterized the main microorganisms and their enzymatic functions associated with dry-aged beef, highlighting the need to explore their contributions to the sensory attributes of dry-aged beef.

Dry-aged beef quality with the addition of Mucor flavus - Sensory, chemosensory and fatty acid analysis

Dry-aged beef is a premium product known for its unique taste and aroma. These characteristics are thought to partially depend on the composition of the microorganisms present on the meat surface during ageing. Recently several attempts to standardise this process were made. This study aimed to assess the effect of a fungal biostarter application on the profile of volatile compounds, fatty acid composition and sensory quality of dry-aged beef. The Longissimus muscle used in the experiment originated from 20 crossbred (10 heifers and 10 steers) animals from the crossing of Holstein-Friesian cows with beef breed bulls. A fungal biostarter composed of Mucor flavus strain KKP2092p was used for meat inoculation. Half of the material was aged without the use of a biostarter (Control samples). The dry-ageing of the meat was performed at a temperature of 1.5 °C with approximately 80-90 % relative humidity for 28 days. The use of Mucor flavus KKP2092p improved meat quality attributes (aroma liking, flavour and overall liking) as a result of the formation of specific volatile compounds. The profile of volatile compounds in the meat aged with Mucor flavus and control variants was differentiated. This study also indicated that Mucor flavus biostarter had an impact on the specific fatty acid composition. An insignificant effect of Mucor flavus on lipid oxidation expressed as mg/kg of malonaldehyde was also observed.

Effect of Dry Aging of Pork on Microbiological Quality and Instrumental Characteristics

Meat aging is an important process that affects the quality of meat and is traditionally used mainly for beef. However, in recent years, there has been an increasing demand for pork products subjected to dry aging. The aim of this study was to compare selected parameters (microbiological quality, instrumental analyses of texture and color of meat, weight loss) of pork neck and loin with bone and skin together subjected to dry aging for 14 days. The microbiological profile (total viable psychrotrophic count, Enterobacteriaceae, psychrotrophic lactic acid bacteria, Pseudomonas spp.) on the surface of the meat with the skin and the lateral cutting surfaces without skin was compared on the first day after slaughter and after 14 days of dry aging. The results of this study demonstrated that dry aging did not significantly deteriorate the microbiological profile. Statistically significant weight losses were observed after 14 days of aging. The dry aging of pork had no significant effect on lightness (L*), redness (a*), and shear force. Significant differences were observed for yellowness (b*) and meat hardness (p < 0.05).

Widely Targeted Metabolomic Analysis Reveals Dynamic Metabolic Changes in Yanbian Cattle during Dry-Aging Process

Dry-aging is a postmortem process that can substantially enhance the texture and flavour of beef. This study entailed suspending Yanbian cattle M. gluteus medius in the aging cabinet, maintained at a temperature of 2-4 °C and a relative humidity of 85 ± 5% for 35 days. Throughout this period, samples were systematically collected every 7 days. The widely targeted metabolomic analysis has been used in this investigation to analyse the dynamic changes in Yanbian cattle metabolites during dry-aging. A total of 883 metabolites were identified, with amino acids and their metabolites representing the largest proportion. Multivariate statistical analysis showed that 373 metabolites were identified as differential metabolites that changed significantly during the dry-aging process, including metabolites of amino acids, glycerophospholipids, and nucleotides and their metabolites. Additionally, 308 metabolites exhibited various increasing trends with time in dry-aging. The analysis of KEGG pathway analysis showed that ABC transporters, glycerophospholipid, and arachidonic acid metabolism are the most important metabolic pathways during dry-aging. These findings can guide technological developments in the meat processing sector and provide valuable insights into the metabolic traits and pathways of Yanbian cattle during the dry-aging process.

Annotated draft genome sequences of Mucor flavus KT1a and Helicostylum pulchrum KT1b strains isolated from dry-aged beef surface

Mucor flavus KT1a and Helicostylum pulchrum KT1b were isolated and identified in our earlier study as the two dominant fungal species on dry-aged beef. In this study, we report their genome sequences and annotations.

Microbiological safety of dry-aged meat: a critical review of data gaps and research needs to define process hygiene and safety criteria

Dry-aged meat is gaining popularity among food business operators and private consumers. The process is carried out in aerobic conditions by hanging beef carcasses or placing subprimal or primal cuts in a dedicated cabinet for several weeks or even months while controlling the environment through the management of process parameters such as temperature, relative humidity, and airflow. In this review, we present a critical evaluation of the literature to evaluate tools to manage the process to guarantee food safety and identify critical control points, as well as good hygiene and manufacturing practices. In controlled aging conditions, only Listeria monocytogenes and Yersinia enterocolitica can multiply, while a reduction in the number of Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli O157:H7 is generally reported. Enterobacteriaceae usually decrease on the surface of the meat during maturation; thus, for the purpose of the hygiene evaluation of the production process, a count no higher than that of unmatured meat is expected. Besides, various studies report that the total bacterial count and the spoilage microorganisms significantly increase on the surface of the meat, up to 5-6 Log10 CFU/g in the absence of visible spoilage. Bacteria of the Pseudomonas genus tend to progressively replace other microorganisms during maturation; thus, the total mesophilic or psychrophilic bacterial load is not a good indicator of process hygiene for matured meat. Critical parameters for the control of the process are temperature, relative humidity, and ventilation, which should be monitored during the process. For this reason, equipment designed and certified for dry-aging must be used, and the manufacturer must validate the process. Food business operators must apply general good manufacturing practices (GMP) and good hygiene practices (GHP) for meat processing and some GMP and GHP specific for dry-aging. Several research needs were identified, among them the evolution of the populations of L. monocytogenes and Y. enterocolitica and the microbiology of the inner parts of the dry-aged meat.

Hydrolysis of Beef Sarcoplasmic Protein by Dry-Aged Beef-Isolated Penicillium oxalicum and Its Associated Metabolic Pathways

Yanbian cattle have a unique meat flavor, and high-grade meat is in short supply. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to improve the added value of Yanbian cattle low-fat meat and provide a theoretical reference for the subsequent development of an excellent starter. Rump meat from Yanbian cattle was dry-aged and then screened for protease-producing fungi. Three protease-producing fungi (Yarrowia hollandica (D4 and D11), Penicillium oxalicum (D5), and Meesziomyces ophidis (D20)) were isolated from 40 d dry-aged beef samples, and their ability to hydrolyze proteins was determined using bovine sarcoplasmic protein extract. SDS-PAGE showed that the ability of Penicillium oxalicum (D5) to degrade proteins was stronger than the other two fungi. In addition, the volatile component content of sarcoplasmic proteins in the D5 group was the highest (45.47%) and comprised the most species (26 types). Metabolic pathway analysis of the fermentation broth showed that phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis was the most closely related metabolic pathway in sarcoplasmic protein fermentation by Penicillium oxalicum (D5). Dry-aged beef-isolated Penicillium oxalicum serves as a potential starter culture for the fermentation of meat products.

Synthesis of taste active γ-glutamyl peptides with pea protein hydrolysate and their taste mechanism via in silico study

Pea (Pisum sativum L.) protein hydrolysate (PPH) has a bitter taste, which has limited its use in food industry. γ-Glutamylation is used to debitter PPH. Results showed that the bitterness of PPH was decreased significantly due to the formation of γ-glutamyl peptides, including 16 γ-[Glu](n=1/2)-amino acids (AAs) and 8 newly discovered γ-glutamyl tripeptides (γ-Glu-Asn-Phe, γ-Glu-Leu-Val, γ-Glu-Leu-Tyr, γ-Glu-Gly-Leu, γ-Glu-Gly-Phe, γ-Glu-Gly-Tyr, γ-Glu-Val-Val, and γ-Glu-Gln-Tyr). Their total production concentrations were 27.25 μmol/L and 77.76 μmol/L, respectively. The γ-Glu-AA-AAs presented an umami-enhancing, salty-enhancing, and kokumi taste when their concentration reached 1.67 ± 0.20 ∼ 2.07 ± 0.20, 1.65 ± 0.25 ∼ 2.29 ± 0.45 and 0.68 ± 0.19 ∼ 1.03 ± 0.22 mmol/L, respectively. The γ-Glu-AA-AAs exhibited a kokumi taste by entering the Venus flytrap (VFT) of the calcium-sensing receptor and interacting with Ser147, Ala168, and Ser170. γ-Glu-AA-AAs can enhance the umaminess of Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) as they can enter the binding pocket of the taste receptor type 1 subunit 3 (T1R3)-MSG complex.

Microbial, Physicochemical Profile and Sensory Perception of Dry-Aged Beef Quality: A Preliminary Portuguese Contribution to the Validation of the Dry Aging Process

Beef dry-aging consists of a selection of unpackaged prime cuts placed in a controlled environment cold room for several weeks. The goals are to concentrate flavors like nutty and beefy and to improve tenderness. The aim of this study was to verify the microbiological and physicochemical behavior and sensory perception of meat during a sample process example of meat dry-aging. Twelve beef loins were selected for 90 days of dry aging and placed in a cold room with average temperature, relative humidity and forced air 3.2 ± 0.7 °C, 60.7 ± 4.2% and 0.5-2 m/s, respectively. Samples of crust and lean meat were collected on days 1, 14, 21, 35, 60 and 90 of the dry aging process for microbiological, physicochemical (pH, aw, color L*a*b*) and sensory analysis. During drying, no pathogenic bacteria were detected, and the average counts were higher for the crust. The average values for water activity (aw) and pH were 0.98 ± 0.02 and 5.77 ± 0.015, respectively. A slight decrease in aw and an increase in pH were observed over the aging period (p < 0.05). The lower microbial counts on the lean meat and the overall assessment of freshness confirm the importance of good manufacturing and storage practices during dry aging.

Cold adapted and closely related mucoraceae species colonise dry-aged beef (DAB)

The dry ageing is a historically relevant method of meat preservation, now used as a way to produce the dry-aged beef (DAB) known for its pronounced flavour. Partially responsible for the taste of the DAB may be various microorganisms that grow on the surface of the meat. Historically, the fungal species colonising the DAB were described as members of the genera Thamnidium and Mucor. In this study we used both culture based approach as well as ITS2 rDNA metabarcoding analysis to investigate the fungal community of the DAB, with special emphasis on the mucoralean taxa. Isolated fungi were members of 6 different species from the family Mucoraceae, belonging to the genera Mucor and Helicostylum. Metabarcoding data provided supplementary information regarding the presence of other fungi including those from the Thamnidium genus. In both approaches used in this study isolates closely related to the Mucor flavus strain CBS 992.68 dominated.

Preliminary data on the microbial profile of dry and wet aged bovine meat obtained from different breeds in Sardinia

This study aimed to evaluate the influence of dry and wet aging on microbial profile and physicochemical characteristics of bovine loins obtained from four animals of two different breeds, namely two Friesian cull cows and two Sardo-Bruna bovines. During dry and wet aging aerobic colony count, Enterobacteriaceae, mesophilic lactic acid bacteria, Pseudomonas, molds and yeasts, Salmonella enterica, Listeria monocytogenes and Yersinia enterocolitica, pH and water activity (a_w) were determined in meat samples collected from the internal part of the loins. Moreover, the microbial profile was determined with sponge samples taken from the surface of the meat cuts. Samples obtained from Friesian cows were analyzed starting from the first day of the aging period and after 7, 14, and 21 days. Samples obtained from the Sardo Bruna bovines were also analyzed after 28 and 35 days. Wet aging allowed better control of Pseudomonas spp. during storage that showed statistically lower levels (P>0.05) in wet-aged meats with respect to dry-aged meats during aging and particularly at the end of the period (P>0.01) in both cattle breeds. At the end of the experiment (21 days), aerobic colony count and Pseudomonas in Fresian cows' dry-aged meats showed mean levels >8 log, while lactic acid bacteria mean counts >7 log were detected in wet-aged meats of both cattle breeds. In meats submitted to dry aging, pH was significantly higher (P<0.01) with respect to wet-aged meats at all analysis times and in both cattle breeds. A_w showed a stable trend during both dry and wet aging without significant differences. These preliminary results highlight the critical importance of the strict application of good hygiene practices during all stages of production of these particular cuts of meat intended for aging.

Effects of in-the-bag dry-ageing on meat quality, palatability and volatile compounds of low-value beef cuts

This study evaluated the effects of in-the-bag dry-ageing (BDA) (21 and 42 d) on meat quality, palatability, and volatile compounds of clod heart, brisket, and flat iron cuts from steers. In all cuts, BDA increased moisture losses (P < 0.05), but this did not reduce the juiciness of 21 d BDA versus wet-aged (WA) steaks. In clod heart, BDA increased overall tenderness at 21 d compared to 21 d WA (P < 0.01). Regardless of ageing period, BDA of clod heart increased beef flavour and salty taste and decreased sour-dairy and stale/cardboard flavours and concentrations of volatile compounds derived from lipid oxidation compared to WA (P < 0.05). In brisket, BDA increased salty taste and fatty aroma and reduced bloody/serumy flavour, whereas decreased beef and buttery flavours and intensified some unpleasant aromas/flavours (P < 0.05) for both ageing periods. The BDA of flat iron increased several undesirable aromas/flavours and decreased sweet taste and beef and buttery flavours (P < 0.05), regardless of ageing period. Overall, BDA for 42 d decreased meat quality and palatability and increased concentrations of volatile compounds from lipid oxidation, especially in flat iron cuts. Value could be recovered by customizing BDA periods by cut.

Fungal Biostarter Effect on the Quality of Dry-Aged Beef

Meat aging is a process consisting of its storage in specific conditions which leads to an increase in its organoleptic qualities. The most common method of meat aging is the wet vacuum-bag based method, whereas the traditional method, called dry-aging, involves keeping meat at a low temperature for an extended time. However, this process is characterized by low repeatability of the results. Therefore, different approaches to stabilize the process are tested. The aim of this study was to analyze the influence of the Mucor flavus biostarter on the physicochemical characteristics and sensory quality of dry-aged beef (DAB). We hypothesized that a fungal biostarter positively influences the quality of DAB and stabilizes the dry-aging process. Meat control samples (N = 7) and samples inoculated with the Mucor flavus biostarter (N = 7), originating from 14 individuals crossbred from Holstein-Friesian cows with bulls of meat breeds, were put into the dry-aging fridge (DryAger, Bad Saulgau, Germany) for 28 days. The physicochemical parameters (pH, color parameters, WHC, GP (glycolytic potential), chemical composition of muscle, the content of malondialdehyde, shear force), muscular protein proteolysis (SDS-PAGE), sensory quality, and microbial composition of DAB were assessed after aging. The results showed a significant effect of the fungal biostarter on pH increase (0.25 units), and light myosin chain proteolysis (approximately 16%) as well as improvement of sensory quality (e.g., acceptability was improved by one unit in an applied scale 1-9). All together, the M. flavus-based biostarter was shown to increase the quality of DAB.

Microbiological safety of aged meat

The impact of dry-ageing of beef and wet-ageing of beef, pork and lamb on microbiological hazards and spoilage bacteria was examined and current practices are described. As 'standard fresh' and wet-aged meat use similar processes these were differentiated based on duration. In addition to a description of the different stages, data were collated on key parameters (time, temperature, pH and aw) using a literature survey and questionnaires. The microbiological hazards that may be present in all aged meats included Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC), Salmonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, enterotoxigenic Yersinia spp., Campylobacter spp. and Clostridium spp. Moulds, such as Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp., may produce mycotoxins when conditions are favourable but may be prevented by ensuring a meat surface temperature of -0.5 to 3.0°C, with a relative humidity (RH) of 75-85% and an airflow of 0.2-0.5 m/s for up to 35 days. The main meat spoilage bacteria include Pseudomonas spp., Lactobacillus spp. Enterococcus spp., Weissella spp., Brochothrix spp., Leuconostoc spp., Lactobacillus spp., Shewanella spp. and Clostridium spp. Under current practices, the ageing of meat may have an impact on the load of microbiological hazards and spoilage bacteria as compared to standard fresh meat preparation. Ageing under defined and controlled conditions can achieve the same or lower loads of microbiological hazards and spoilage bacteria than the variable log10 increases predicted during standard fresh meat preparation. An approach was used to establish the conditions of time and temperature that would achieve similar or lower levels of L. monocytogenes and Yersinia enterocolitica (pork only) and lactic acid bacteria (representing spoilage bacteria) as compared to standard fresh meat. Finally, additional control activities were identified that would further assure the microbial safety of dry-aged beef, based on recommended best practice and the outputs of the equivalence assessment.

Metabolic, proteomic and microbial changes postmortem and during beef aging

The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the current knowledge about proteomic and metabolic changes in beef, the microbiological alteration postmortem and during aging, and observe the influence on beef quality parameters, such as tenderness, taste and flavor. This review will also focus on the different aging types (wet- and dry-aging), the aging or postmortem time of beef and their effect on the proteome and metabolome of beef. The Ca2+ homeostasis and adenosine 5'-triphosphate breakdown are the main reactions in the pre-rigor phase. After rigor mortis, the enzymatic degradation of connective tissues and breakdown of energy metabolism dominate molecular changes in beef. Important metabolic processes leading to the formation of saccharides, nucleotides, organic acids (e.g. lactic acid), creatine and fatty acids are considered in this context as possible flavor precursors or formers of beef flavor and taste. Flavor precursors are substrates for lipid oxidation, Strecker degradation and Maillard reaction during cooking or roasting. The findings presented should serve as a basis for a better understanding of beef aging and its molecular effects and are intended to contribute to meeting the challenges of improving beef quality.

Direct Rub Inoculation of Fungal Flora Changes Fatty Acid Composition and Volatile Flavors in Dry-Aged Beef: A Preliminary Study

Here, we established a method to produce dry-aged beef (DAB) by rub inoculation with fungal flora on the prepared DAB surface. Portions of Holstein steers’ rumps were prepared by direct rub inoculation of fungal flora or without treatment (conventional DAB) and dry-aged for 26 days in an aging room at 2.9 °C and 90% relative humidity. We compared the fungal covering and meat quality, including fatty acid composition and volatile aromatic compounds, of fungal-inoculated DAB with those of the conventional DAB. The fungal-inoculated DAB was almost entirely covered with white mold, in contrast to the conventional DAB. Moreover, the proportion of oleic acid and the concentration of nine volatile compounds significantly increased in the raw meat of fungal-inoculated DAB compared with those in the conventional DAB (p < 0.05). These results suggested that direct rub inoculation of fungal flora from prepared DAB may accelerate DAB production and efficiently enhance the “melt-in-the-mouth” feeling and flavors of DAB.