Wine aging and artificial simulated wine aging: Technologies, applications, challenges, and perspectives

Ultrasonic replacement of natural aging: Potential strategies for improving the color, antioxidant activity, and volatile compound profile of astragalus mead

The growing demand for natural and functional beverages has driven research aimed at improving the quality of herbal meads. This study investigates the use of non-thermal processing methods, ultrasonic, microwave, and high hydrostatic pressure processing, as alternatives to traditional natural aging for improving the physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity, color stability, and volatile compound profile of astragalus mead. Response surface methodology was employed to optimize fermentation conditions, which yielded the highest flavonoid content and sensory quality at an impregnation time of 12 h, an impregnation temperature of 10 °C, and a fermentation temperature of 20 °C. Among the processing methods evaluated (natural aging, ultrasound, microwave irradiation, and high hydrostatic pressure), ultrasound treatment resulted in the most significant improvements. Specifically, it increased total phenol content by 7.22 %, total flavonoid content by 9.41 %, and antioxidant capacity by 65.43 %. Volatile compound analysis also revealed a 191.30 % increase in ester content, significantly enhancing floral and fruity notes. Sensory analysis using quantitative descriptive analysis, partial least squares discriminant analysis, and weighted gene co-expression network analysis confirmed the efficacy of ultrasound, with ethyl caprylate identified as a key aroma contributor. These findings suggest that ultrasound is an effective non-thermal processing technique for improving the aging process and overall quality of astragalus mead. This study provides valuable insights for the industrial application of non-thermal processing technologies in astragalus mead production.

LC-MS/MS-Based Determination and Optimization of Linoleic Acid Oxides in Baijiu and Their Variation with Storage Time

Background: Post-production storage plays a pivotal role in developing the characteristic flavor profile of Baijiu, a traditional alcoholic beverage in China. While aging markers remain crucial for quality authentication, the identification of reliable metabolic indicators for chronological determination requires further exploration. Methods: This study establishes a novel liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methodology for quantifying five linoleic acid-derived oxidative metabolites in Baijiu: 9,12,13-trihydroxy-10(E)-octadecenoic acid (9,12,13-TriHOME), 9,10-Dihydroxy-12-octadecenoic acid (9,10-DiHOME), 9-oxo-(10E,12Z)-octadecadienoic acid (9-OxoODE), 9-hydroxy-(10E,12Z)-octadecadienoic acid (9-HODE) and 13-hydroxyoctadeca-(9Z,11E)-octadecadienoic acid (13-HODE). Results: The optimized protocol demonstrated exceptional sensitivity with limits of detection at 0.4 ppb through membrane-filtered direct dilution. Calibration curves exhibited excellent linearity (R2 > 0.9990) across 1.0-100.0 ppb ranges. Method validation revealed satisfactory recovery rates (87.25-119.44%) at three spiking levels (10/20/50 ppb) with precision below 6.96% RSD. Application to authentic samples showed distinct temporal accumulation patterns. Light-aroma Baijiu exhibited storage duration-dependent increases in all five oxides. Strong aroma variants demonstrated significant positive correlations for 9,12,13-TriHOME, 9,10-DiHOME, and 9-OxoODE with aging time. Conclusions: These findings systematically characterize linoleic acid oxidation products as potential aging markers, providing both methodological advancements and new insights into Baijiu aging mechanisms.

Accelerating maturation of Chinese rice wine by using a 20 L scale multi-sweeping-frequency mode ultrasonic reactor and its mechanism exploration

The formation of flavor in traditional Chinese rice wine requires a long aging process. To accelerate the maturation of rice wine, a 20 L scale multi-sweeping- frequency mode ultrasonic reactor was employed in this study to explore the promoting effects. Rice wines were subjected under 10 combined types of sonication treatments with 20/28/40 kHz in single/double/triple frequencies, and in fixed or sweeping modes, respectively. Then samples were aged in room temperature for up to 180 days. A 7.3 % increase of total esters content was observed in rice wine sample after treated by a fixed 40 kHz ultrasonication with 50 W/L intensity at 30 °C for 15 min, compared with the untreated sample. After sonication and stored for six months, 286.78 % increase of the volatile esters was found, compared to rice wine without ultrasoinc treatment and stored at same condition for same time. And the total volatile alcohol substances and total volatile aldehydes in rice wine decreased by 12.95 % and 67.46 %, while the total volatile acids increased by 17.11 %, respectively. The research results also demonstrated that ultrasonic induced free radicals accounted for the variations of rice wine properties. And the correlation between the acoustic cavitation and the flavor formation was also observed.

Ultrasound and its coupled oak blocks treatment based on absorbed energy density for comprehensive insight and scale-up consideration of phenolic and astringency profiles in red wines

Ultrasound and ultrasound-coupled oak blocks techniques on the phenolic and astringency profiles of Petit Verdot wines were discussed in this study. The relationship between techniques at varying absorbed energy density (AED) gradients and astringency was revealed, elucidating potential molecular mechanisms regarding compound interactions. Ultrasound was found to promote phenolics degradation and condensed tannins maturation, while oak blocks improved ellagitannins release into wines, facilitating polycondensation reactions to form larger complexes. Phenolics binding to salivary proteins decreased at low AED values (0-33.07 J/mL), enhanced at high AED values (66.14-165.34 J/mL), and reduced salivary proteins' precipitation ability. Treated samples significantly altered astringency's global terminology and sensory attributes across oral regions, with oak blocks enriching the astringency hierarchy. Multivariate analysis identified an optimal ultrasound AED of 0 to 33.07 J/mL, and an effective PLS-DA model was developed for industrial scale-up considerations, aiming to cost-effectively enhance the organoleptic quality of wines.

Dynamic changes in dissolved oxygen concentration, microbial communities, and volatile compounds during industrial oak-barrel fermentation of Sauvignon Blanc wine

Oak-barrel fermentation is used in white wine production to enhance aroma and flavor complexity. However, the dynamics of microbial communities and their impact on the formation of flavor compounds during barrel fermentation remain unclear. This study investigated the changes in dissolved oxygen concentrations, microbial communities, and volatile compounds during Sauvignon Blanc wine fermentation in various oak barrels (new and two-year-old Francois Freres and new Taransaud) and stainless-steel tanks. We found that oak barrels had higher dissolved oxygen levels than steel tanks, with new barrels exhibiting higher levels than the old ones during fermentation. The dominant bacterial genera across all the vessels during the fermentation included Ralstonia, Pantoea, Gluconobacter, and Mesorhizobium, whereas the dominant fungal genera were Saccharomyces, Aspergillus, Alternaria, and Aureobasidium. The fermentation environment altered the microbial composition as the fermentation progressed in various vessels. Compared with steel tanks, difference in microbial composition between oak barrels was less significant. The new oak barrels increased the levels of esters, alcohols, and acids in the wine, while only minor differences were observed between old barrels and steel tanks. Correlation analysis showed that Ralstonia, Gluconobacter, Mesorhizobium, and Saccharomyces were positively correlated with the production of wine volatiles. Structural equation modeling indicated the interactions between dissolved oxygen, microbial communities, and wine aromas. The impact of dissolved oxygen on fungal communities during fermentation differed significantly between new and old oak barrels, indirectly influencing aroma. Conversely, in stainless-steel tanks, dissolved oxygen weakly influenced the bacterial and fungal communities, with the influence on wine aroma primarily dependent on the fungal communities. These findings provide valuable insights for optimizing the Sauvignon Blanc wine fermentation in oak barrels.

Three decades of research on wine marketing

The goal of this study is to provide a comprehensive review of the academic research into wine marketing over the last three decades. Data from 1135 wine marketing-related research documents published 1990-2022 in the Web of Science and Scopus databases were employed. Using mainly co-word analysis and bibliographic coupling, the key themes of the discipline were identified. A longitudinal analysis identified the topic's evolution and current research trends. Results show that wine marketing research has grown sharply in recent years. From the pioneering studies that examined consumers' behaviours and wine price drivers, the discipline evolved to address burgeoning themes such as sustainability, social media (digital marketing) and wine tourism, which evidences the interest that academics have shown in enhancing knowledge in the area.

Application of toasted vine-shoot chips and ultrasound treatment in the ageing of Primitivo wine

Ageing wine in barrels is an historical practice used to improve the aromatic complexity of wine, but due to the high cost and the long ageing period, alternative approaches have been developed, such as the use of wood chips and ultrasound treatment. The present paper reports the results of an investigation performed on wine (cv. Primitivo). Three treatments were investigated: a) control wine untreated; b) wine with toasted vine-shoot chips (10 g/L); c) wine with toasted vine-shoot chips (10 g/L) and treated by ultrasound. Wines were analysed after 7, 14, 21, and 28 days. The application of ultrasound combined with vine-shoot chips promoted tannin evolution, thereby accelerating the ageing process of wine. The chips addition decreased the total anthocyanins content and increased the stilbenes (trans-resveratrol and trans-piceid) and wood-related aromas (i.e., furfural, 5-methylfurfural) concentration. Finally, wines added with chips were richer in woody, vanilla, oak, and chocolate notes and more preferred by the tasters.

Effects of high power pulsed microwave on the enhanced color and flavor of aged blueberry wine

A new method of high-power pulsed microwave (HPPM) was applied to accelerate the aging of blueberry wine. The color changes of blueberry wines during aging were investigated through Chemical Wine Age and CIE-LAB measurement. Results showed that the blueberry wines treated by HPPM at low frequencies (50 and 100 Hz) exhibited improved color characteristics with L* value reaching 47.04 at 100 Hz, an increased maturity of wine body, and a shortened chemical wine age from 90 days to 75 days. Moreover, the aroma changes determined by GC-MS showed that HPPM accelerated the formation of esters in blueberry wine, which were increased by 18.44% and 56.97% respectively under the conditions of 50 and 150 Hz. The formation of acid substances was reduced compared with the original wine, with contents of acetic acid, caproic acid, and octanoic acid of 29.46 µg/mL, 15.60 µg/mL, 17.74 µg/mL, respectively, displaying an enhanced wine flavor.

The Effect of Ultrasound Treatment in Winemaking on the Volatile Compounds of Aglianico, Nero di Troia, and Primitivo Red Wines

An ultrasound (US) treatment was applied during the vinification of three different red grape cultivars with the aim of assessing the impact on the volatile profile of the wines. A robust solid phase micro extraction coupled with gas chromatography mass-spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS) method was developed in order to fix the best parameters for optimizing the volatile organic compound (VOC) recovery. A 15% NaCl solution was added to the samples to increase the salting-out effect, the time/temperature were appropriately selected, and the matrix effect was evaluated by comparing synthetic and real matrices. In addition, external calibration curves were used to quantify the single volatile compounds. The analyses of the wine samples at 7 and 14 months of aging revealed that US exerted the highest effect on Aglianico, which had the highest amount of total VOC. US Nero di Troia showed similar results after 14 months of aging, while Primitivo was not affected by the treatment. Nevertheless, from discriminant analysis, a clear separation was observed between the control and ultrasound-treated wines for all three cultivars, with ethyl decanoate, ethyl isopentyl succinate, and butyric acid having the highest discriminant coefficients. In conclusion, the obtained results indicated that the effect of US treatment on the VOC profile of the wine considered in the experimentation is cultivar-dependent.

Distilled beverage aging: A review on aroma characteristics, maturation mechanisms, and artificial aging techniques

The market value of distilled beverage relies on its quality with a major contribution of distinctive and fascinating aromas. The aroma of distilled beverage is built on the basis of chemical components and can be modified through a series of physical and chemical processes such as aging. Revealing the hidden knowledge behind the evolution of numerous chemical components during these physicochemical processes in distilled beverages is not only significant but also challenging due to its complex system. In this review, the trends in the changes of associated aroma compounds over aging are proposed on the basis of understanding the relationship between chemical components and aroma profiles of numerous typical distilled beverages. The different aging systems, both classical platforms from Eastern countries (pottery jars) to Western countries (wood barrels), and modern platforms such as artificial aging technologies are outlined and compared with their respective applications. Optimizing aging processes is a challenging but imperative step, which warrants further fundamental knowledge from targeting aging-related molecules to the exploration of multitude physicochemical reaction mechanisms that occur during this process, such as the formation of potent odorant compounds in specific containers and environments, as well as mass transfer processes between solid and liquid interfaces. Understanding these maturation mechanisms of distilled beverages expressed by chemosensory signature holds promise for major improvements in future aging technologies that can efficiently yield stable and high-quality products.

Synergy of physicochemical reactions occurred during aging for harmonizing and improving flavor

Numerous counterfeit vintage Baijiu are widely distributed in the market driven by economic interest which disturb the market economic rules and damage the reputation of particular Baijiu brand. Found on the situation, the Baijiu system variation during aging period, aging mechanisms and discrimination strategies for vintage Baijiu are systematically illuminated. The aging mechanisms of Baijiu cover volatilization, oxidation, association, esterification, hydrolysis, formation of colloid molecules and catalysis by metal elements or other raw materials dissolved from storage vessels. The discrimination of aged Baijiu has been performed by electrochemical method, colorimetric sensor array or component characterization coupled with multivariate analysis. Nevertheless, the characterization of non-volatile compounds in aged Baijiu is deficient. Further research on the aging principles, more easy-operation and low-cost discrimination strategies for aged Baijiu are imperative. The above information is favorable to better understand the aging process and mechanisms of Baijiu, and promote the development of artificial aging techniques.

Potential applications of pulsed electric field in the fermented wine industry

Fermented wine refers to alcoholic beverages with complex flavor substances directly produced by raw materials (fruit or rice) through microbial fermentation (yeast and bacteria). Its production steps usually include saccharification, fermentation, filtration, sterilization, aging, etc., which is a complicated and time-consuming process. Pulsed electric field (PEF) is a promising non-thermal food processing technology. Researchers have made tremendous progress in the potential application of PEF in the fermented wine industry over the past few years. The objective of this paper is to systematically review the achievements of PEF technology applied to the winemaking and aging process of fermented wine. Research on the application of PEF in fermented wine suggests that PEF treatment has the following advantages: (1) shortening the maceration time of brewing materials; (2) promoting the extraction of main functional components; (3) enhancing the color of fermented wine; (4) inactivating spoilage microorganisms; and (5) accelerating the formation of aroma substances. These are mainly related to PEF-induced electroporation of biomembranes, changes in molecular structure and the occurrence of chemical reactions. In addition, the key points of PEF treatments for fermented wine are discussed and some negative impacts and research directions are proposed.

How to comprehensively improve juice quality: a review of the impacts of sterilization technology on the overall quality of fruit and vegetable juices in 2010-2021, an updated overview and current issues

Fruit and vegetable juices (FVJ) are rich in nutrients, so they easily breed bacteria, which cause microbial pollution and rapid deterioration of their quality and safety. Sterilization is an important operation in FVJ processing. However, regardless of whether thermal sterilization or non-thermal sterilization is used, the effect and its impact on the overall quality of FVJ are strongly dependent on the processing parameters, microbial species, and FVJ matrix. Therefore, for different types of FVJ, an understanding of the impacts that different sterilization technologies have on the overall quality of the juice is important in designing and optimizing technical parameters to produce value-added products. This article provides an overview of the application of thermal and non-thermal technique in the field of FVJ processing over the past 10 years. The operating principle and effects of various technologies on the inactivation of microorganisms and enzymes, nutritional and functional characteristics, physicochemical properties, and sensory quality of a wide range of FVJ are comprehensively discussed. The application of different combinations of hurdle technology in the field of FVJ sterilization processing are also discussed in detail. Additionally, the advantages, limitations, and current application prospects of different sterilization technologies are summarized.