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Giorgetti A, Fais P, Pascali JP, Mohamed S, Rossi F, Garagnani M, Pelletti G. External hair contamination from cannabis and "light cannabis" delivered by smoking and vaping: An in vitro study. Drug Test Anal 2023. [PMID: 38145896 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 11/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/27/2023]
Abstract
External contamination of hair by cannabis smoking requires a careful evaluation in forensic toxicology. Medical and recreational cannabis are increasingly consumed by e-cigarettes, which give rise to side-stream vapor. Moreover, products containing low Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and rich in cannabidiol (CBD) started spreading legally. The goal of the present study was to assess whether hair analysis could allow to distinguish the type of delivered product, with low or high Δ9-THC, and the delivering mode, by smoking or vaping. Contamination of blank hair was mimicked by in vitro exposure to low- (0.4%) and high-Δ9-THC (9.7%) products delivered by smoking and vaping within a small confined system. Cannabis vaping extracts were prepared to deliver identical target Δ9-THC doses. Eighty samples were analyzed by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry and quantified for Δ9-THC and CBD. After contamination by cannabis smoking, THC levels were in line with past in vitro and in vivo studies. Samples exposed to cannabis (169.30 ng/mg) showed significantly higher Δ9-THC than hair exposed to "light cannabis" (35.54 ng/mg), and the opposite was seen for the CBD/Δ9-THC ratio. Hair contaminated by vaping or smoking did not show a statistically different Δ9-THC content. Under our in vitro conditions, hair analysis might allow to discriminate whether external contamination is determined by products containing low or high Δ9-THC, but not the delivering mode. More research is needed in real-life conditions, to see whether the same also applies to the interpretation of forensic casework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianna Giorgetti
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Paolo Fais
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Jennifer Paola Pascali
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Susan Mohamed
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Francesca Rossi
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marco Garagnani
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Guido Pelletti
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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Hart ED, Vikingsson S, Winecker RE, Evans AL, Cone EJ, Mitchell JM, Hayes ED, Flegel RR. Performance of Hair Testing for Cocaine Use-Comparison of Five Laboratories Using Blind Reference Specimens. J Anal Toxicol 2023; 47:154-161. [PMID: 36039690 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkac066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare results from five commercial hair testing laboratories conducting workplace drug testing with regard to bias, precision, selectivity and decontamination efficiency. Nine blind hair specimens, including cocaine-positive drug user specimens (some contaminated with methamphetamine) and negative specimens contaminated with cocaine, were submitted in up to five replicates to five different laboratories. All laboratories correctly identified cocaine in all specimens from drug users. For an undamaged hair specimen from a cocaine user, within-laboratory Coefficients of Variation (CVs) of 5-22% (median 8%) were reported, showing that it is possible to produce a homogenous proficiency testing sample from drug user hair. Larger CVs were reported for specimens composed of blended hair (up to 29%) and curly/damaged hair (19-67%). Quantitative results appeared to be method-dependent, and the reported cocaine concentrations varied up to 5-fold between the laboratories, making interlaboratory comparisons difficult. All laboratories reported at least one positive result in specimens contaminated with cocaine powder, followed by sweat and shampoo treatments. Benzoylecgonine, norcocaine, cocaethylene and hydroxylated cocaine metabolites were all detected in cocaine powder-contaminated specimens. This indicates that current industry standards for analyzing and reporting positive cocaine results are not completely effective at identifying external contamination. Metabolite ratios between meta- or para-hydroxy-cocaine and cocaine were 6- and 10-fold lower in contaminated specimens compared to those observed in cocaine user specimens, supporting their potential use in distinguishing samples positive due to contamination and drug use.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Dale Hart
- Center for Forensic Science, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Svante Vikingsson
- Center for Forensic Science, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Ruth E Winecker
- Center for Forensic Science, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Amy L Evans
- Center for Forensic Science, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Edward J Cone
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Dr., Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - John M Mitchell
- Center for Forensic Science, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Eugene D Hayes
- Division of Workplace Programs, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857, USA
| | - Ronald R Flegel
- Division of Workplace Programs, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857, USA
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Ramírez Fernández MDM, Wille SMR, Yegles M, Samyn N. Evaluation of decontamination procedures for drug testing in undamaged vs damaged hair. Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:1155-1165. [PMID: 35148467 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Although substances incorporated by ingestion are strongly bound to hair, their loss may occur if aggressive decontamination procedures are applied, especially in highly damaged/porous hair. AIMS Evaluation of cleaning procedures using hair samples with different porosity obtained from ethanol or drug users (cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, methadone, fentanyl, tramadol, diazepam, buprenorphine, dihydrocodeine, citalopram and trazodone). The effect of washing time and multiple wash steps with water and methanol were evaluated. METHODS Hair samples (n=16) were selected and evaluated according to: a) the drug pattern consumption, b) available amount, and c) hair porosity (c1 'cosmetic treatment', c2: storage time). Six of them were soaked with an aqueous deuterated analogue solution. The samples were cut in 1 cm segments and homogenized. All hair samples were then decontaminated one or six times with 1.5 mL of water or methanol during 1, 5, 15, 30, 60 and/or 90 min (n=1 to 3/sample, depending on the available amount of hair). Hair extracts were then cleaned up via an SPE or LLE extraction, while the washes were evaporated to dryness. All were thereafter reconstituted and analysed with routine UPLC-MS/MS methods. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Although concentrations of parent drugs and/or metabolites presented a negative trend along the washing time with methanol (up to 80%), the compounds were relatively well retained in hair even after a 90 min wash in most samples. Their retention would depend mostly on the hair nature rather than their physicochemical properties (whether incorporated by ingestion and/or from external contamination). Moreover, parent drugs and/or metabolites were detected in the washes in most samples, and the ratio between hair and washes decreased along the washing time. More than 50% of the deuterated analogues soaked into hair were still present after the different washing steps. CONCLUSION Generally, the substances analysed were well retained in hair samples after different washing steps with water or methanol. Losses were observed more frequently for long term stored hair samples, after decontamination with methanol for more than 30 min. Therefore, prolonged or repeated cleaning with methanol should be avoided in general procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sarah M R Wille
- Federal Public Service Justice, National Institute of Criminalistics and Criminology, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Michel Yegles
- Laboratoire National de Santé, Dudelange, Luxembourg
| | - Nele Samyn
- Federal Public Service Justice, National Institute of Criminalistics and Criminology, Brussels, Belgium
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Aijala JC, Wu W, DeCaprio AP. Assessing Hair Decontamination Protocols for Diazepam, Heroin, Cocaine and Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol by Statistical Design of Experiments. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 45:498-505. [PMID: 32852033 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Prior to toxicological analysis, hair as a matrix requires pre-treatment measures including decontamination, homogenization and extraction. Decontamination is performed to differentiate between drug present from superficial deposition and drug incorporated from systemic distribution following ingestion. There are many methods for decontamination of hair samples, mostly developed by empirically using a traditional "one factor at a time" approach, in which one independent variable at a time is changed to observe the effect on the dependent variable. The goal of the present work was to compare the efficacy of decontamination protocols using statistical "design of experiments" (DoE), which allows for analysis of multiple variables and interactions within a single experiment. Decontamination parameters included identity of aqueous and organic wash solutions, number of sequential aqueous and organic washes, order of aqueous and organic washes, and duration of each wash. DoE studies were completed to identify optimal decontamination conditions for four abused drugs with varying physiochemical properties. For this purpose, drug-free human hair was externally contaminated with diazepam, heroin, cocaine or Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Each analyte was found to have a unique set of decontamination conditions that were most effective. These included three 30-min washes with methanol followed by three with 1% sodium dodecyl sulfide for diazepam, three 30-s washes with dichloromethane followed by one with water for heroin, one 30-s wash with 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate followed by three with dichloromethane for cocaine and three 30-min washes with water followed by one with methanol for Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol. The results provide proof-of-principle for a DoE approach to identify effective parameters for hair decontamination for a physicochemically diverse group of drugs. The major advantage of DoE is to elucidate combinations of parameters that result in effective removal of surface contamination, a goal that would be challenging to accomplish using a one factor at a time approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennett Chenevert Aijala
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and the International Forensic Research Institute, Florida International University, 11200 SW Eighth Street, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Wensong Wu
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Florida International University, 11200 SW Eighth Street, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Anthony P DeCaprio
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and the International Forensic Research Institute, Florida International University, 11200 SW Eighth Street, Miami, FL 33199, USA
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Shankar N, Guimarães AO, Napoli E, Giulivi C. Forensic determination of hair deposition time in crime scenes using electron paramagnetic resonance. J Forensic Sci 2020; 66:72-82. [PMID: 32986869 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Several types of biological samples, including hair strands, are found at crime scenes. Apart from the identification of the value and the contributor of the probative evidence, it is important to prove that the time of shedding of hair belonging to a suspect or victim matches the crime window. To this end, to estimate the ex vivo aging of hair, we evaluated time-dependent changes in melanin-derived free radicals in blond, brown, and black hairs by using electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (EPR). Hair strands aged under controlled conditions (humidity 40%, temperature 20-22°C, indirect light, with 12/12 hour of light/darkness cycles) showed a time-dependent decay of melanin-derived radicals. The half-life of eumelanin-derived radicals in hair under our experimental settings was estimated at 22 ± 2 days whereas that of pheomelanin was about 2 days suggesting better stabilization of unpaired electrons by eumelanin. Taken together, this study provides a reference for future forensic studies on determination of degradation of shed hair in a crime scene by following eumelanin radicals by utilizing the non-invasive, non-destructive, and highly specific EPR technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikhita Shankar
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - André O Guimarães
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA.,Laboratório de Ciências Físicas, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil
| | - Eleonora Napoli
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Cecilia Giulivi
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA.,MIND Institute, University of California Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA, USA
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Aijala JC, Wu W, DeCaprio AP. Application of statistical design of experiments to assess pre-treatment parameters in forensic hair analysis for amphetamine. Forensic Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Is there an interest for hair analysis in non-intentional pediatric cannabis intoxication? Forensic Sci Int 2020; 313:110377. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Côte C, Piram A, Lacoste A, Josse D, Doumenq P. Sorption of G-agent simulant vapours on human scalp hair. Chem Biol Interact 2020; 326:109111. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2020.109111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Davies C, Gautam L, Grela A, Morrissey J. Variability associated with interpreting drugs within forensic hair analysis: A three-stage interpretation. J Appl Toxicol 2020; 40:868-888. [PMID: 32126591 DOI: 10.1002/jat.3959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Hair analysis is capable of determining both an individual's long-term drug history and a single exposure to a drug, which can be particularly important for corroborating incidents of drug-facilitated crimes. As a source of forensic evidence that may be used in a court of law, it must be credible, impartial and reliable, yet the pathways of drug and metabolite entry into hair are still uncertain. Many variables may influence drug analysis results, most of which are outside of the control of an analyst. An individual's pharmacokinetic and metabolic responses, hair growth rates, drug incorporation routes, axial migration, ethnicity, age and gender, for example, all display interpersonal variability. At present there is little standardization of the analytical processes involved with hair analysis. Both false positives and negative results for drugs are frequently encountered, regardless of whether a person has consumed a drug or not. In this regard, we have categorized these variables and proposed a three-stage analytical approach to facilitate forensic toxicologists, hair analysis experts, judiciaries and service users in the analytical and interpretation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Davies
- Forensic and Investigative Studies, School of Life Science, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK
| | - Lata Gautam
- Forensic and Investigative Studies, School of Life Science, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK
| | - Agatha Grela
- School of Human and Social Sciences, University of West London, Brentford, London, UK
| | - Joanne Morrissey
- Forensic and Investigative Studies, School of Life Science, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK
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Mantinieks D, Wright P, Di Rago M, Gerostamoulos D. A systematic investigation of forensic hair decontamination procedures and their limitations. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1542-1555. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Revised: 08/03/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dylan Mantinieks
- Department of Forensic Medicine Monash University Southbank VIC 3006 Australia
- Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine 65 Kavanagh Street Southbank VIC 3006 Australia
| | - Paul Wright
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences RMIT University PO Box 71 Bundoora VIC 3083 Australia
| | - Matthew Di Rago
- Department of Forensic Medicine Monash University Southbank VIC 3006 Australia
- Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine 65 Kavanagh Street Southbank VIC 3006 Australia
| | - Dimitri Gerostamoulos
- Department of Forensic Medicine Monash University Southbank VIC 3006 Australia
- Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine 65 Kavanagh Street Southbank VIC 3006 Australia
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The effectiveness of decontamination procedures used in forensic hair analysis. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2018; 14:349-357. [DOI: 10.1007/s12024-018-9994-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Cuypers E, Flanagan RJ. The interpretation of hair analysis for drugs and drug metabolites. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2017; 56:90-100. [DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2017.1379603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Eva Cuypers
- KU Leuven Toxicology and Pharmacology, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Robert J. Flanagan
- Toxicology Unit, Department of Clinical Biochemistry, King’s College Hospital, London, UK
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Duvivier WF, van Beek TA, Nielen MWF. Critical comparison of mass analyzers for forensic hair analysis by ambient ionization mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2016; 30:2331-2340. [PMID: 27528453 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.7722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Revised: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Recently, several direct and/or ambient mass spectrometry (MS) approaches have been suggested for drugs of abuse imaging in hair. The use of mass spectrometers with insufficient selectivity could result in false-positive measurements due to isobaric interferences. Different mass analyzers have been evaluated regarding their selectivity and sensitivity for the detection of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) from intact hair samples using direct analysis in real time (DART) ionization. METHODS Four different mass analyzers, namely (1) an orbitrap, (2) a quadrupole orbitrap, (3) a triple quadrupole, and (4) a quadrupole time-of-flight (QTOF), were evaluated. Selectivity and sensitivity were assessed by analyzing secondary THC standard dilutions on stainless steel mesh screens and blank hair samples, and by the analysis of authentic cannabis user hair samples. Additionally, separation of isobaric ions by use of travelling wave ion mobility (TWIM) was investigated. RESULTS The use of a triple quadrupole instrument resulted in the highest sensitivity; however, transitions used for multiple reaction monitoring were only found to be specific when using high mass resolution product ion measurements. A mass resolution of at least 30,000 FWHM at m/z 315 was necessary to avoid overlap of THC with isobaric ions originating from the hair matrix. Even though selectivity was enhanced by use of TWIM, the QTOF instrument in resolution mode could not indisputably differentiate THC from endogenous isobaric ions in drug user hair samples. CONCLUSIONS Only the high resolution of the (quadrupole) orbitrap instruments and the QTOF instrument in high-resolution mode distinguished THC in hair samples from endogenous isobaric interferences. As expected, enhanced selectivity compromises sensitivity and THC was only detectable in hair from heavy users. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilco F Duvivier
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University, Dreijenplein 8, 6703, HB, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Teris A van Beek
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University, Dreijenplein 8, 6703, HB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Michel W F Nielen
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University, Dreijenplein 8, 6703, HB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- RIKILT Wageningen UR, P.O. Box 230, 6700, AE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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