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Wang J, Lu X, Zhang Z, Gao R, Pei C, Wang H. Application of chemical attribution in matching OPNAs-exposed biological samples with exposure sources- based on the impurity profiles via GC × GC-TOFMS analysis. J Chromatogr A 2024; 1718:464718. [PMID: 38335883 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2024.464718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Chemical attribution is a vital tool to attribute chemicals or related materials to their origins in chemical forensics via various chemometric methods. Current progress related to organophosphorus nerve agents (OPNAs) has mainly focused on the attribution of chemical sources and synthetic pathways. It has not yet been applied in matching exposed biological samples to their sources. This work used chemical attribution to explore organic impurity profiles in biological samples exposed to various OPNAs. Chemical attribution was first used to identify the exposure source of biological samples based on the full-scan data via comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometer (GC × GC-TOFMS). Taking peak area as the only variable, it can quickly match exposed samples to their sources by applying unsupervised or supervised models, screen difference compounds via one-way ANOVA or t-tests, and then identify valuable impurities that can distinguish different types of exposed samples. To further obtain the impurity profile only applicable to a certain weapon' samples, the irrelevant components were removed via conventional methods. The findings showed there were 53 impurities that can promote distinguishing six groups of OPNA exposed samples, as well as 42 components that can be used as valuable impurities to distinguish class G and class V samples. These were all unique impurities that appear in a certain weapon' samples. The outcomes can be a reference for tracing the source for OPNA-exposed samples, which was beneficial to the further development in source matching of forensic samples. Moreover, the chemical attribution for impurity profiles in biological samples after weapons exposure may inspire research into the characteristics of impurity profile in biological samples as well as practical applications of chemical attribution for OPNA-exposed samples, that may expand potential biomarkers and break the limits of existing markers in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Xiaogang Lu
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Zixuan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Runli Gao
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Chengxin Pei
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Hongmei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
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2
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Toske SG, Mitchell JR, Myslinski JM, Walz AJ, Guthrie DB, Guest EM, Corbett CA, Lockhart ED. Organic impurity profiling of fentanyl samples associated with recent clandestine laboratory methods. J Forensic Sci 2023; 68:1470-1483. [PMID: 37203260 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Nearly a decade ago, fentanyl reappeared in the United States illicit drug market. In the years since, overdose deaths have continued to rise as well as the amount of fentanyl seized by law enforcement agencies. Research surrounding fentanyl production has been beneficial to regulatory actions and understanding illicit fentanyl production. In 2017, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) began collecting seized fentanyl samples from throughout the United States to track purity, adulteration trends, and synthetic impurity profiles for intelligence purposes. The appearance of a specific organic impurity, phenethyl-4-anilino-N-phenethylpiperidine (phenethyl-4-ANPP) indicates a shift in fentanyl production from the traditional Siegfried and Janssen routes to the Gupta-patent route. Through a collaboration between the DEA and the US Army's Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center (DEVCOM CBC), the synthesis of fentanyl was investigated via six synthetic routes, and the impurity profiles were compared to those of seized samples. The synthetic impurity phenethyl-4-ANPP was reliably observed in the Gupta-patent route published in 2013, and its structure was confirmed through isolation and structure elucidation. Organic impurity profiling results for illicit fentanyl samples seized in late 2021 have indicated yet another change in processing with the appearance of the impurity ethyl-4-anilino-N-phenethylpiperidine (ethyl-4-ANPP). Through altering reagents traditionally used in the Gupta-patent route, the formation of this impurity was determined to occur through a modification of the route as originally described in the Gupta patent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven G Toske
- Special Testing and Research Laboratory, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Sterling, Virginia, USA
| | | | - James M Myslinski
- Research and Technology Directorate, Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center, U.S. Army, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew J Walz
- Research and Technology Directorate, Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center, U.S. Army, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, USA
| | - David B Guthrie
- Special Testing and Research Laboratory, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Sterling, Virginia, USA
| | - Elizabeth M Guest
- Special Testing and Research Laboratory, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Sterling, Virginia, USA
| | - Charlotte A Corbett
- Special Testing and Research Laboratory, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Sterling, Virginia, USA
| | - Emily D Lockhart
- Special Testing and Research Laboratory, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Sterling, Virginia, USA
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3
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Investigations into fentanyl precursors method classification by handheld Fourier transform infrared and Raman spectroscopy combined with multivariate statistical analysis. Forensic Chem 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2023.100476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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4
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Valdez CA, Leif RN, Corzett TH, Dreyer ML. Analysis, identification and confirmation of synthetic opioids using chloroformate chemistry: Retrospective detection of fentanyl and acetylfentanyl in urine and plasma samples by EI-GC-MS and HR-LC-MS. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0275931. [PMID: 36322521 PMCID: PMC9629642 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0275931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Electron Impact Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (EI-GC-MS) and High Resolution Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (HR-LC-MS) have been used in the analysis of products arising from the trichloroethoxycarbonylation of fentanyl and acetylfentanyl in urine and plasma matrices. The method involves the initial extraction of both synthetic opioids separately from the matrices followed by detection of the unique products that arise from their reaction with 2,2,2-trichloroethoxycarbonyl chloride (Troc-Cl), namely Troc-norfentanyl and Troc-noracetylfentanyl. The optimized protocol was successfully evaluated for its efficacy at detecting these species formed from fentanyl and acetylfentanyl when present at low and high levels in urine (fentanyl: 5 and 10 ng/mL and acetylfentanyl: 20 and 100 ng/mL) and plasma (fentanyl: 10 and 20 ng/mL and acetylfentanyl: 50 and 200 ng/mL), values that reflect levels reported in overdose victims. The HR-LC-MS method's LOQ (limit of quantitation) for the Troc-norfentanyl and Troc-noracetylfentanyl products was determined to be ~10 ng/mL for both species. Even though the superiority in the detection of these species by HR-LC-MS over EI-GC-MS, the latter method proved to be important in the detection of the second product from the reaction, namely 2-phenylethyl chloride that is crucial in the determination of the original opioid. This observation highlights the importance of using complimentary analytical techniques in the analysis of a sample, whether biological or environmental in nature. The method herein serves as a complementary, qualitative confirmation for the presence of a fentanyl in collected urine, plasma and by extension other biological samples amenable to the common extraction procedures described for opioid analysis. More importantly, the method's main strength comes from its ability to react with unknown fentanyls to yield products that can be not only detected by EI-GC-MS and HR-LC-MS but can then be used to retrospectively identify an unknown fentanyl.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A. Valdez
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, United States of America
- Nuclear and Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, United States of America
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Roald N. Leif
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, United States of America
- Nuclear and Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, United States of America
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, United States of America
| | - Todd H. Corzett
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, United States of America
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, United States of America
- Biosciences and Biotechnology Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, United States of America
| | - Mark L. Dreyer
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, United States of America
- Nuclear and Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, United States of America
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, United States of America
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Mörén L, Lindén P, Larsson A, Östin A. The potential of Direct Analysis in Real Time as a forensic tool for carfentanil profiling. Forensic Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2022.100449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Kosecki PA, Brooke P, Canonico E. Fentanyl as a potential false positive with color tests commonly used for presumptive cocaine identification. J Forensic Sci 2022; 67:2082-2088. [PMID: 35766309 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Chemical color tests are widely utilized as part of the analytical scheme approved to identify drugs in forensic laboratories and in the field by law enforcement officers. Although these test results are considered preliminary indications of the presence of a drug, forensic scientists sometimes use these test results to direct their confirmatory testing and law enforcement officers use these test results when making arrest decisions and decisions on how to impound evidence. The color tests commonly used to identify cocaine are aqueous cobalt thiocyanate, the Young's test, the Scott's test, and the modified Scott's test. Field testing of a white powder was reported by a law enforcement officer to be positive for cocaine hydrochloride using a commercially available test kit based on the modified Scott's test. The forensic laboratory determined that the powder contained fentanyl and mannitol; cocaine was not detected. Subsequently, the case material, fentanyl and cocaine reference materials, and cocaine cut with mannitol were tested using aqueous cobalt thiocyanate, the Young's test, the Scott's test, and the modified Scott's test. The fentanyl standard and case material produced the colors that would be interpreted as cocaine using the aqueous cobalt thiocyanate and Young's tests. The misidentification of fentanyl as cocaine with these tests could create a potentially hazardous situation. The cocaine containing samples were distinguishable from the fentanyl containing samples with the Scott's and modified Scott's test when 1 mg of cocaine material was tested, whereas a 3-mg cocaine sample produced the same color sequence as fentanyl.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Phillip Brooke
- Scottsdale Police Department Crime Laboratory, Scottsdale, Arizona, USA
| | - Erika Canonico
- Scottsdale Police Department Crime Laboratory, Scottsdale, Arizona, USA
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Krausz RM, Westenberg JN, Mathew N, Budd G, Wong JSH, Tsang VWL, Vogel M, King C, Seethapathy V, Jang K, Choi F. Shifting North American drug markets and challenges for the system of care. Int J Ment Health Syst 2021; 15:86. [PMID: 34930389 PMCID: PMC8685808 DOI: 10.1186/s13033-021-00512-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug markets are dynamic systems which change based on demand, competition, legislation and revenue. Shifts that are not met with immediate and appropriate responses from the healthcare system can lead to public health crises with tragic levels of morbidity and mortality, as experienced Europe in the early 1990s and as is the case in North America currently. The major feature of the current drug market shift in North America is towards highly potent synthetic opioids such as fentanyl and fentanyl analogues. An additional spike in stimulant use further complicates this issue. Without understanding the ever-changing dynamics of drug markets and consequent patterns of drug use, the healthcare system will continue to be ineffective in its response, and morbidity and mortality will continue to increase. Economic perspectives are largely neglected in research and clinical contexts, but better treatment alternatives need to consider the large-scale macroeconomic conditions of drug markets as well as the behavioural economics of individual substance use. It is important for policy makers, health authorities, first responders and medical providers to be aware of the clinical implications of drug market changes in order to best serve people who use drugs. Only with significant clinical research, a comprehensive reorganization of the system of care across all sectors, and an evidence-driven governance, will we be successful in addressing the challenges brought on by the recent shifts in drug markets.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Michael Krausz
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Jean N Westenberg
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
- Addictions and Concurrent Disorders Research Group, Institute of Mental Health, UBC, David Strangway Building, 5950 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada.
| | - Nickie Mathew
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Complex Pain and Addiction Service, Vancouver General Hospital, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- BC Mental Health & Substance Use Services, Provincial Health Services Authority, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - George Budd
- Complex Pain and Addiction Service, Vancouver General Hospital, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - James S H Wong
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Complex Pain and Addiction Service, Vancouver General Hospital, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Vivian W L Tsang
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Marc Vogel
- University of Basel Psychiatric Clinics, Basel, Switzerland
- Division of Substance Use Disorders, Psychiatric Services of Thurgovia, Münsterlingen, Switzerland
| | - Conor King
- Victoria Police Department, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Vijay Seethapathy
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- BC Mental Health & Substance Use Services, Provincial Health Services Authority, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Kerry Jang
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Fiona Choi
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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8
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Classification of carfentanil synthesis methods based on chemical impurity profile. Forensic Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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9
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Valdez CA. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Synthetic Opioids Belonging to the Fentanyl Class: A Review. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2021; 52:1938-1968. [PMID: 34053394 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2021.1927668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The rising number of deaths caused by fentanyl overdosing in the US due to the overwhelming illicit use of this synthetic opioid has started a global campaign to develop efficient ways to control its production and distribution as well as discovering efficient antidotes to mitigate its lethal effects. Another important vein of focused research established by various agencies lies in the development of efficient and practical protocols for the detection of this opioid and analogs thereof in various matrices, whether environmental or biological in nature, particularly in the field of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The following review will cover the literature dealing with the detection and identification of synthetic opioids belonging to the fentanyl class by GC-MS means and hyphenated versions of the technique. Detailed descriptions will be given for the GC-MS methods employed for the analysis of the opioid, starting with the nature of the extraction protocol employed prior to analysis to the actual findings presented by the cited reports. Great effort has gone into describing the methods involved in each paper in a detailed manner and these have been compiled by year in tables at the end of each section for the reader's convenience. Lastly, the review will end with concluding remarks about the state of GC-MS analysis with regards to these powerful opioids and what lies ahead for this analytical field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Valdez
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Forensic Science Center, Livermore, California, USA.,Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA.,Nuclear and Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
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