Exosomes in cancer development

Mesenchymal stem cells derived exosomes: a new era in cardiac regeneration

Despite significant strides in medical treatments and surgical procedures for cardiovascular diseases, these conditions continue to be a major global health concern. The persistent need for innovative therapeutic approaches to mend damaged heart tissue highlights the complexity and urgency of this medical challenge. In recent years, stem cells have emerged as a promising tool for tissue regeneration, but challenges such as graft rejection and tumor formation have limited their clinical application. Exosomes, extracellular vesicles containing a diverse array of biomolecules, have garnered significant attention for their potential in regenerative medicine. The cardioprotective and reparative properties of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes hold promise for the treatment of heart diseases. These exosomes can modulate various cellular processes, including angiogenesis, apoptosis, and inflammation, thereby enhancing cardiac function. Despite the growing interest, there remains a lack of comprehensive reviews synthesizing the molecular mechanisms, preclinical, and clinical evidence related to the specific role of MSC-derived exosomes in cardiac therapies. This review aims to fill that gap by exploring the potential of MSC-derived exosomes as a therapeutic strategy for cardiac diseases. This review explores the potential of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes as a therapeutic strategy for cardiac diseases. We discuss the molecular mechanisms underlying their cardioprotective effects, summarize preclinical and clinical studies investigating their efficacy, and address the challenges and future perspectives of exosome-based therapies. The collective evidence suggests that MSC-derived exosomes hold promise as a novel and effective therapeutic approach for cardiac diseases.

Exosomal ncRNAs in liquid biopsies for lung cancer

Exosomal non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have become essential contributors to advancing and treating lung cancers (LCs). The development of liquid biopsies that utilize exosomal ncRNAs (exo-ncRNAs) offers an encouraging method for diagnosing, predicting, and treating LC. This thorough overview examines the dual function of exo-ncRNAs as both indicators for early diagnosis and avenues for LC treatment. Exosomes are tiny vesicles secreted by various cells, including cancerous cells, enabling connection between cells by delivering ncRNAs. These ncRNAs, which encompass circular RNAs, long ncRNAs, and microRNAs, participate in the modulation of gene expression and cellular functions. In LC, certain exo-ncRNAs are linked to tumour advancement, spread, and treatment resistance, positioning them as promising non-invasive indicators in liquid biopsies. Additionally, targeting these ncRNAs offers potential for innovative treatment approaches, whether by suppressing harmful ncRNAs or reinstating the activity of tumour-suppressing ones. This review emphasizes recent developments in the extraction and analysis of exo-ncRNAs, their practical applications in LC treatment, and the challenges and prospects for translating these discoveries into clinical usage. Through this detailed examination of the current state of the art, we aim to highlight the significant potential of exo-ncRNAs for LC diagnostics and treatments.

Exosomes as Vehicles for Noncoding RNA in Modulating Inflammation: A Promising Regulatory Approach for Ischemic Stroke and Myocardial Infarction

Exosomes have grown as promising carriers for noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) in the treatment of inflammation, particularly in conditions like ischemic stroke and myocardial infarction. These ncRNAs, which include microRNAs (miRNAs) and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), play a crucial role in regulating inflammatory pathways, presenting new therapeutic opportunities. In both ischemic stroke and myocardial infarction, inflammation significantly influences disease progression and severity. Exosomes can deliver ncRNAs directly to specific cells and tissues, providing a targeted approach to modulate gene expression and reduce inflammation. Their biocompatibility and low risk of inducing immune responses make exosomes ideal therapeutic vehicles. Ongoing research is focused on optimizing the loading of ncRNAs into exosomes, ensuring efficient delivery, and understanding the mechanisms by which these ncRNAs mitigate inflammation. In ischemic stroke, exosome-derived ncRNAs originate from various cell types, including neurons, M2 microglia, patient serum, genetically engineered HEK293T cells, and mesenchymal stromal cells. In the case of myocardial infarction, these ncRNAs are sourced from mesenchymal stem cells, endothelial cells, and patient plasma. These exosome-loaded ncRNAs play a significant role in modulating inflammation in both ischemic stroke and myocardial infarction. As this research advances, therapies based on exosomes may completely change how diseases linked to inflammation are treated, offering new avenues for patient care and recovery. This review explores the latest advancements in understanding how exosomes impact specific inflammatory components, with a particular emphasis on the role of ncRNAs contained in exosomes. The review concludes by highlighting the clinical potential of exosome-derived ncRNAs as innovative therapeutic and diagnostic tools.

Exosomal misfolded proteins released by cancer stem cells: dual functions in balancing protein homeostasis and orchestrating tumor progression

Cancer stem cells (CSCs), the master regulators of tumor heterogeneity and progression, exert profound influence on cancer metastasis, via various secretory vesicles. Emerging from CSCs, the exosomes serve as pivotal mediators of intercellular communication within the tumor microenvironment, modulating invasion, angiogenesis, and immune responses. Moreover, CSC-derived exosomes play a central role in sculpting a dynamic landscape, contributing to the malignant phenotype. Amidst several exosomal cargoes, misfolded proteins have recently gained attention for their dual functions in maintaining protein homeostasis and promoting tumor progression. Disrupting these communication pathways could potentially prevent the maintenance and expansion of CSCs, overcome treatment resistance, and inhibit the supportive environment created by the tumor microenvironment, thereby improving the effectiveness of cancer therapies and reducing the risk of tumor recurrence and metastasis. Additionally, exosomes have also shown potential therapeutic applications, such as in drug delivery or as biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and prognosis. Therefore, comprehending the biology of exosomes derived from CSCs is a multifaceted area of research with implications in both basic sciences and clinical applications. This review explores the intricate interplay between exosomal misfolded proteins released by CSCs, the potent contributor in tumor heterogeneity, and their impact on cellular processes, shedding light on their role in cancer progression.

Tumor-derived small extracellular vesicles in cancer invasion and metastasis: molecular mechanisms, and clinical significance

The production and release of tumor-derived small extracellular vesicles (TDSEVs) from cancerous cells play a pivotal role in the propagation of cancer, through genetic and biological communication with healthy cells. TDSEVs are known to orchestrate the invasion-metastasis cascade via diverse pathways. Regulation of early metastasis processes, pre-metastatic niche formation, immune system regulation, angiogenesis initiation, extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, immune modulation, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) are among the pathways regulated by TDSEVs. MicroRNAs (miRs) carried within TDSEVs play a pivotal role as a double-edged sword and can either promote metastasis or inhibit cancer progression. TDSEVs can serve as excellent markers for early detection of tumors, and tumor metastases. From a therapeutic point of view, the risk of cancer metastasis may be reduced by limiting the production of TDSEVs from tumor cells. On the other hand, TDSEVs represent a promising approach for in vivo delivery of therapeutic cargo to tumor cells. The present review article discusses the recent developments and the current views of TDSEVs in the field of cancer research and clinical applications.

Circulating exosomal miRNAs as a promising diagnostic biomarker in cancer

Cancer belongs to multifactorial diseases characterized by uncontrolled growth and proliferation of abnormal cells. Breast cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, and colorectal cancer are the most frequently diagnosed malignancies with a high mortality rate. These carcinomas typically contain multiple genetically distinct subpopulations of tumor cells leading to tumor heterogeneity, which promotes the aggressiveness of the disease. Early diagnosis is necessary to increase patient progression-free survival. Particularly, miRNAs present in exosomes derived from tumors represent potential biomarkers suitable for early cancer diagnosis. Identification of miRNAs by liquid biopsy enables a personalized approach with the subsequent better clinical management of patients. This review article highlights the potential of circulating exosomal miRNAs in early breast, non-small cell lung, and colorectal cancer diagnosis.

Exosome-mediated miR-144-3p promotes ferroptosis to inhibit osteosarcoma proliferation, migration, and invasion through regulating ZEB1

BACKGROUND

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most prevalent orthopedic malignancy with a dismal prognosis. The high iron absorption rate in OS cells of patients suggests that ferroptosis may be related to the progression of OS, but its potential molecular regulatory role is still unclear. Based on the ability to couple with exosomes for targeted delivery of signals, exosome-derived micro ribonucleic acids (miRNAs) can potentially serve as diagnostic biomarkers for OS.

METHODS

We identified ferroptosis-related miRNAs and messenger ribonucleic acids(mRNAs) in OS using bioinformatics analysis and performed survival analysis. Then we measured miRNA expression levels through exosome microarray sequencing, and used RT-qPCR and IHC to verify the expression level of miR-144-3p and ZEB1. Stable gene expression cell lines were fabricated for in vitro experiments. Cell viability, migration and invasion were determined by CCK-8 and transwell experiment. Use the corresponding reagent kit to detect GSH/GSSG ratio, Fe²⁺ level, MDA level and ROS level, and measure the expression levels of GPX4, ACSL4 and xCT through RT-qPCR and WB. We also constructed nude mice model for in vivo experiments. Finally, the stability of the miRNA/mRNA axis was verified through functional rescue experiments.

RESULTS

Low expression of miR-144-3p and high expression of ZEB1 in OS cell lines and tissues was observed. Overexpression of miR-144-3p can promote ferroptosis, reduce the survival ability of OS cells, and prevent the progression of OS. In addition, overexpression of miR-144-3p can downregulate the expression of ZEB1 in cell lines and nude mice. Knockdown of miR-144-3p has the opposite effect. The functional rescue experiment validated that miR-144-3p can regulate downstream ZEB1, and participates in the occurrence and development of OS by interfering with redox homeostasis and iron metabolism.

CONCLUSIONS

MiR-144-3p can induce the occurrence of ferroptosis by negatively regulating the expression of ZEB1, thereby inhibiting the proliferation, migration, and invasion of OS cells.

Three-dimensional deep regression-based light scattering imaging system for nanoscale exosome analysis

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that serve as promising intrinsic nanoscale biomarkers for disease diagnosis and treatment. Nanoparticle analysis technology is widely used in the field of exosome study. However, the common particle analysis methods are usually complex, subjective, and not robust. Here, we develop a three-dimensional (3D) deep regression-based light scattering imaging system for nanoscale particle analysis. Our system solves the problem of object focusing in common methods and acquires light scattering images of label-free nanoparticles as small as 41 nm in diameter. We develop a new method for nanoparticle sizing with 3D deep regression, where the 3D time series Brownian motion data of single nanoparticles are input as a whole, and sizes are output automatically for both entangled and untangled nanoparticles. Exosomes from the normal and cancer liver cell lineage cells are observed and automatically differentiated by our system. The 3D deep regression-based light scattering imaging system is expected to be widely used in the field of nanoparticle analysis and nanomedicine.

A colorimetric and photothermal dual-mode biosensing platform based on nanozyme-functionalized flower-like DNA structures for tumor-derived exosome detection

Tumor-derived exosomes can be served as a kind of promising biomarkers for early diagnosis of cancers. Herein, a colorimetric/photothermal dual-mode exosomes sensing platform is developed for human breast cancer cell (MCF-7)-derived exosomes based on encapsulation of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine-loaded graphene quantum dot nanozymes (TMB-GQDzymes) into DNA flowers (DFs) via rolling circle amplification (RCA). To achieve specific detection, EpCAM aptamer for MCF-7 cell-derived exosomes is immobilized on the well plate, while the complementary sequence of another CD63 aptamer is designed into the circular template to obtain abundant capture probes. Benefitting from the dual-aptamer recognition strategy, a sandwich structure of EpCAM aptamer/exosomes/TMB-GQDzymes@DFs is formed, in which the GQDzymes can catalyze the oxidation of TMB in the presence of H₂O₂. The resulting products of TMB oxidation (oxTMB) can induce not only the absorption changes but also a near-infrared (NIR) laser-driven photothermal effect, achieving dual-mode detection of exosomes with the limit of detection (LOD) of 1027 particles/μL (colorimetry) and 2170 particles/μL (photothermal detection), respectively. In addition, this sensing platform has demonstrated excellent performance to well distinguish breast cancer patients from healthy individuals in serum samples analysis. Overall, the proposed dual-readout biosensor opens promising prospects for exosome detection in biological study and clinical applications.

Cell-Free Filtrates (CFF) as Vectors of a Transmissible Pathologic Tissue Memory Code: A Hypothetical and Narrative Review

Cellular memory is a controversial concept representing the ability of cells to "write and memorize" stressful experiences via epigenetic operators. The progressive course of chronic, non-communicable diseases such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, cancer, and arteriosclerosis, is likely driven through an abnormal epigenetic reprogramming, fostering the hypothesis of a cellular pathologic memory. Accordingly, cultured diabetic and cancer patient-derived cells recall behavioral traits as when in the donor's organism irrespective to culture time and conditions. Here, we analyze the data of studies conducted by our group and led by a cascade of hypothesis, in which we aimed to validate the hypothetical existence and transmissibility of a cellular pathologic memory in diabetes, arteriosclerotic peripheral arterial disease, and cancer. These experiments were based on the administration to otherwise healthy animals of cell-free filtrates prepared from human pathologic tissue samples representative of each disease condition. The administration of each pathologic tissue homogenate consistently induced the faithful recapitulation of: (1) Diabetic archetypical changes in cutaneous arterioles and nerves. (2) Non-thrombotic arteriosclerotic thickening, collagenous arterial encroachment, aberrant angiogenesis, and vascular remodeling. (3) Pre-malignant and malignant epithelial and mesenchymal tumors in different organs; all evocative of the donor's tissue histopathology and with no barriers for interspecies transmission. We hypothesize that homogenates contain pathologic tissue memory codes represented in soluble drivers that "infiltrate" host's animal cells, and ultimately impose their phenotypic signatures. The identification and validation of the actors in behind may pave the way for future therapies.

Hepatitis Viruses Control Host Immune Responses by Modifying the Exosomal Biogenesis Pathway and Cargo

The development of smart immune evasion mechanisms is crucial for the establishment of acute and chronic viral hepatitis. Hepatitis is a major health problem worldwide arising from different causes, such as pathogens, metabolic disorders, and xenotoxins, with the five hepatitis viruses A, B, C, D, and E (HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV, and HEV) representing the majority of the cases. Most of the hepatitis viruses are considered enveloped. Recently, it was reported that the non-enveloped HAV and HEV are, in reality, quasi-enveloped viruses exploiting exosomal-like biogenesis mechanisms for budding. Regardless, all hepatitis viruses use exosomes to egress, regulate, and eventually escape from the host immune system, revealing another key function of exosomes apart from their recognised role in intercellular communication. This review will discuss how the hepatitis viruses exploit exosome biogenesis and transport capacity to establish successful infection and spread. Then, we will outline the contribution of exosomes in viral persistence and liver disease progression.

Exosomics in oral cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutics - An emergent and imperative non-invasive natural nanoparticle-based approach

Exosomes- the natural nanoparticles belonging to heterogeneous vesicles are released via nearly all sorts of cells, including tumour cells, to oprate intercellular communication. Selective packaging of exosomes amid nucleic acids, phospholipids, and proteins makes them ideal for intercellular communications occurring among different cells. The existence of exosomes has been validated in various biofluids, including saliva. Being non-invasive and in direct contact with oral malignant cells, saliva establishes itself as a preeminent source of early cancer biomarkers. In context, the role and providence of both recipient and donor secreting cells are persuaded through exosomal cargo.Several studies have emphasized the influence of exosomal contents in different stages of cancer development, reconciling interactions between tumour cells and their surrounding niche. More explicitly, a transformation of exosomal contents such as nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins can endorse tumour progression and help ascertain a secluded pre-metastatic niche crammed with substances that errand cancer cell proliferation,angiogenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance. The blooming field of exosomes has directed the evolution of high-end isolation and characterization techniques along with the development of an entirely new field- exosomics that comprises complete analysis of exosomal cargo in various physiological conditions, including oral cancer. Researchers have discovered multiple pathways involved in exosome biogenesis to understand numerous events associated with cancer progression. Tissue-specific packaging of exosomes makes them a novel source of prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets. The extent of the current review confers the contemporary perception of the versatile task of exosomes, especially salivary exosomes, as potential biomarkers in the progression and diagnosis as well as therapeutics of oral cancers and their potential employment in clinical applications.

Insight into Extracellular Vesicle-Cell Communication: From Cell Recognition to Intracellular Fate

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are heterogamous lipid bilayer-enclosed membranous structures secreted by cells. They are comprised of apoptotic bodies, microvesicles, and exosomes, and carry a range of nucleic acids and proteins that are necessary for cell-to-cell communication via interaction on the cells surface. They initiate intracellular signaling pathways or the transference of cargo molecules, which elicit pleiotropic responses in recipient cells in physiological processes, as well as pathological processes, such as cancer. It is therefore important to understand the molecular means by which EVs are taken up into cells. Accordingly, this review summarizes the underlying mechanisms involved in EV targeting and uptake. The primary method of entry by EVs appears to be endocytosis, where clathrin-mediated, caveolae-dependent, macropinocytotic, phagocytotic, and lipid raft-mediated uptake have been variously described as being prevalent. EV uptake mechanisms may depend on proteins and lipids found on the surfaces of both vesicles and target cells. As EVs have been shown to contribute to cancer growth and progression, further exploration and targeting of the gateways utilized by EVs to internalize into tumor cells may assist in the prevention or deceleration of cancer pathogenesis.

Exosomal-long non-coding RNAs journey in colorectal cancer: Evil and goodness faces of key players

Exosomes are nano-vesicles (NVs) secreted by cells and take part in cell-cell communications. Lately, these exosomes were proved to have dual faces in cancer. Actually, they can contribute to carcinogenesis through epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), angiogenesis, metastasis and tumor microenvironment (TME) of various cancers, including colorectal cancer (CRC). On the other hand, they can be potential targets for cancer treatment. CRC is one of the most frequent tumors worldwide, with incidence rates rising in the recent decades. In its early stage, CRC is asymptomatic with poor treatment outcomes. Therefore, finding a non-invasive, early diagnostic biomarker tool and/or suitable defender to combat CRC is mandatory. Exosomes provide enrichment and safe setting for their cargos non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) and proteins, whose expression levels can be upregulated ordown-regulated in cancer. Hence, exosomes can be used as diagnostic and/or prognostic tools for cancer. Moreover, exosomes can provide a novel potential therapeutic modality for tumors via loading with specific chemotherapeutic agents, with the advantage of possible tumor targeting. In this review, we will try to collect and address recent studies concerned with exosomes and their cargos' implications for CRC diagnosis and/or hopefully, treatment.

Extracellular Vesicle Measurements with Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis: A Different Appreciation of Up and Down Secretion

As is the case with most eucaryotic cells, cancer cells are able to secrete extracellular vesicles (EVs) as a communication means towards their environment and surrounding cells. EVs are represented by microvesicles and smaller vesicles called exosomes, which are known for their involvement in cancer aggressiveness. The release of such EVs requires the intervention of trafficking-associated proteins, mostly represented by the RAB-GTPases family. In particular, RAB27A is known for its role in addressing EVs-to-be secreted towards the the plasma membrane. In this study, shRNAs targeting RAB27A were used in colorectal (CRC) and glioblastoma (GB) cell lines in order to alter EVs secretion. To study and monitor EVs secretion in cell lines’ supernatants, nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) was used through the NanoSight NS300 device. Since it appeared that NanoSight failed to detect the decrease in the EVs secretion, we performed another approach to drop EVs secretion (RAB27A-siRNA, indomethacin, Nexihnib20). Similar results were obtained i.e., no variation in EVs concentration. Conversely, NTA allowed us to monitor EVs up-secretion following rotenone treatment or hypoxia conditions. Therefore, our data seemed to point out the insufficiency of using only this technique for the assessment of EVs secretion decrease.

The Functional Role of Extracellular Matrix Proteins in Cancer

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is highly dynamic as it is constantly deposited, remodeled and degraded to maintain tissue homeostasis. ECM is a major structural component of the tumor microenvironment, and cancer development and progression require its extensive reorganization. Cancerized ECM is biochemically different in its composition and is stiffer compared to normal ECM. The abnormal ECM affects cancer progression by directly promoting cell proliferation, survival, migration and differentiation. The restructured extracellular matrix and its degradation fragments (matrikines) also modulate the signaling cascades mediated by the interaction with cell-surface receptors, deregulate the stromal cell behavior and lead to emergence of an oncogenic microenvironment. Here, we summarize the current state of understanding how the composition and structure of ECM changes during cancer progression. We also describe the functional role of key proteins, especially tenascin C and fibronectin, and signaling molecules involved in the formation of the tumor microenvironment, as well as the signaling pathways that they activate in cancer cells.

Hallmarks of exosomes

Exosomes are a new horizon in modern therapy, presenting exciting new opportunities for advanced drug delivery and targeted release. Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles with a size range of 30-100 nm, secreted by all cell types in the human body and carrying a unique collection of DNA fragments, RNA species, lipids, protein biomarkers, transcription factors and metabolites. miRNAs are one of the most common RNA species in exosomes, and they play a role in a variety of biological processes including exocytosis, hematopoiesis and angiogenesis, as well as cellular communication via exosomes. Exosomes can act as cargo to transport this information from donor cells to near and long-distance target cells, participating in the reprogramming of recipient cells.

Exosomes in the Tumor Microenvironment: From Biology to Clinical Applications

Cancer is one of the most important health problems and the second leading cause of death worldwide. Despite the advances in oncology, cancer heterogeneity remains challenging to therapeutics. This is because the exosome-mediated crosstalk between cancer and non-cancer cells within the tumor microenvironment (TME) contributes to the acquisition of all hallmarks of cancer and leads to the formation of cancer stem cells (CSCs), which exhibit resistance to a range of anticancer drugs. Thus, this review aims to summarize the role of TME-derived exosomes in cancer biology and explore the clinical potential of mesenchymal stem-cell-derived exosomes as a cancer treatment, discussing future prospects of cell-free therapy for cancer treatment and challenges to be overcome.

Extracellular vesicles from pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma endoscopic ultrasound-fine needle aspiration samples contain a protein barcode

BACKGROUND

The survival rate of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is very poor because early detection is difficult. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are released from cells associating with the cellular condition and circulated in the blood. We aimed to identify EV proteins from endoscopic ultrasound-fine needle aspiration (EUS-FNA) biopsy samples in order to develop novel biomarkers for PDAC.

METHODS

Extracellular vesicles were isolated from EUS-FNA samples of 40 PDAC patients and six autoimmune pancreatitis (AIP) patients to be used as a control. EV proteins were identified using nanoLC-MS/MS.

RESULTS

Intact EVs approximately 200 nm in diameter were detected from EUS-FNA samples. We identified 2059 or 1032 EV proteins in PDAC or AIP, respectively, and 1071 EV proteins were detected only in PDAC. One hundred and fifty-three EV proteins were significantly different between PDAC and AIP: 64 proteins were down-regulated in PDAC whereas 89 EV proteins were up-regulated in PDAC including mucins, keratins, Ras-related proteins, and olfactomedin-4, which proteins have been reported to be elevated in PDAC tissue/blood, or cultured pancreatic cancer cell lines. Notably, in the 89 up-regulated PDAC EV proteins we identified novel proteins including ADP-ribosylation factor 3, CD55, pyruvate kinase, and lipopolysaccharide-induced tumor necrosis factor. Out of 89 proteins, a total of 13 proteins including Ras-related proteins were significantly elevated in PDAC stages II-IV compared to PDAC stage I, including Ras-related proteins, moesin, and CD55.

CONCLUSIONS

The EV proteins obtained from EUS-FNA samples contain a PDAC-specific protein barcode. The EV proteins identified from EUS-FNA samples include promising biomarkers for the diagnosis and clinical staging of PDAC.

Urine LOX-1 and Volatilome as Promising Tools towards the Early Detection of Renal Cancer

Simple Summary

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is often late diagnosed at an advanced stage, worsening the prognosis of the patients. Thus, an early marker is desirable. This paper presents an innovative combined approach useful to identify, for the first time, the presence of LOX-1 protein within the urine of clear cell RCC patients. The LOX-1 protein is related to metabolic disorder-associated carcinogenesis and is shown to be quantitatively correlated to tumor grade and stage. The analysis of volatile compounds released by urine shows the diagnostic potentialities of volatilome and indicates that at least one volatile compound is correlated with both LOX-1 and cancer. In this work, we propose the potential use of a noninvasive approach that enables an early, routine ccRCC diagnosis and leads to a better management of the patients.

Abstract

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) represents around 3% of all cancers, within which clear cell RCC (ccRCC) are the most common type (70–75%). The RCC disease regularly progresses asymptomatically and upon presentation is recurrently metastatic, therefore, an early method of detection is necessary. The identification of one or more specific biomarkers measurable in biofluids (i.e., urine) by combined approaches could surely be appropriate for this kind of cancer, especially due to easy obtainability by noninvasive method. OLR1 is a metabolic gene that encodes for the Lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1 (LOX-1), implicated in inflammation, atherosclerosis, ROS, and metabolic disorder-associated carcinogenesis. Specifically, LOX-1 is clearly involved in tumor insurgence and progression of different human cancers. This work reports for the first time the presence of LOX-1 protein in ccRCC urine and its peculiar distribution in tumoral tissues. The urine samples headspace has also been analyzed for the presence of the volatile compounds (VOCs) by SPME-GC/MS and gas sensor array. In particular, it was found by GC/MS analysis that 2-Cyclohexen-1-one,3-methyl-6-(1-methylethyl)- correlates with LOX-1 concentration in urine. The combined approach of VOCs analysis and protein quantification could lead to promising results in terms of diagnostic and prognostic potential for ccRCC tumors.

Exosomes: Potential Disease Biomarkers and New Therapeutic Targets

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles released by cells, both constitutively and after cell activation, and are present in different types of biological fluid. Exosomes are involved in the pathogenesis of diseases, such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, pregnancy disorders and cardiovascular diseases, and have emerged as potential non-invasive biomarkers for the detection, prognosis and therapeutics of a myriad of diseases. In this review, we describe recent advances related to the regulatory mechanisms of exosome biogenesis, release and molecular composition, as well as their role in health and disease, and their potential use as disease biomarkers and therapeutic targets. In addition, the advantages and disadvantages of their main isolation methods, characterization and cargo analysis, as well as the experimental methods used for exosome-mediated drug delivery, are discussed. Finally, we present potential perspectives for the use of exosomes in future clinical practice.

DC-Derived Exosomes for Cancer Immunotherapy

As the initiators of adaptive immune responses, DCs play a central role in regulating the balance between CD8 T cell immunity versus tolerance to tumor antigens. Exploiting their function to potentiate host anti-tumor immunity, DC-based vaccines have been one of most promising and widely used cancer immunotherapies. However, DC-based cancer vaccines have not achieved the promised success in clinical trials, with one of the major obstacles being tumor-mediated immunosuppression. A recent discovery on the critical role of type 1 conventional DCs (cDC1s) play in cross-priming tumor-specific CD8 T cells and determining the anti-tumor efficacy of cancer immunotherapies, however, has highlighted the need to further develop and refine DC-based vaccines either as monotherapies or in combination with other therapies. DC-derived exosomes (DCexos) have been heralded as a promising alternative to DC-based vaccines, as DCexos are more resistance to tumor-mediated suppression and DCexo vaccines have exhibited better anti-tumor efficacy in pre-clinical animal models. However, DCexo vaccines have only achieved limited clinical efficacy and failed to induce tumor-specific T cell responses in clinical trials. The lack of clinical efficacy might be partly due to the fact that all current clinical trials used peptide-loaded DCexos from monocyte-derived DCs. In this review, we will focus on the perspective of expanding current DCexo research to move DCexo cancer vaccines forward clinically to realize their potential in cancer immunotherapy.

Colorectal Cancer Cell-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicles Educate Human Fibroblasts to Stimulate Migratory Capacity

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is in the top 10 cancers most prevalent worldwide, affecting equally men and women. Current research on tumor-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) suggests that these small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) play an important role in mediating cell-to-cell communication and thus potentially affecting cancer progression via multiple pathways. In the present study, we hypothesized that sEVs derived from different CRC cell lines differ in their ability to reprogram normal human fibroblasts through a process called tumor education. The sEVs derived from CRC cell lines (HT29 and HCT116) were isolated by a combination of ultrafiltration and polymeric precipitation, followed by characterization based on morphology, size, and the presence or absence of EV and non-EV markers. It was observed that the HT29 cells displayed a higher concentration of sEVs compared with HCT116 cells. For the first time, we demonstrated that HT29-derived sEVs were positive for low-molecular-weight protein tyrosine phosphatase (Lmwptp). CRC cell-derived sEVs were uptake by human fibroblasts, stimulating migratory ability via Rho-Fak signaling in co-incubated human fibroblasts. Another important finding showed that HT29 cell-derived sEVs are much more efficient in activating human fibroblasts to cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs). Indeed, the sEVs produced by the HT29 cells that are less responsive to a cytotoxic agent display higher efficiency in educating normal human fibroblasts by providing them advantages such as activation and migratory ability. In other words, these sEVs have an influence on the CRC microenvironment, in part, due to fibroblasts reprogramming.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles prevent the development of osteoarthritis via the circHIPK3/miR-124-3p/MYH9 axis

Background

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) may play a vital role in a variety of biological processes, including cartilage regeneration. However, few studies reported their potential in the development of osteoarthritis (OA) previously. In this study, we explored the biological roles and underlying mechanism of MSCs-EVs in OA.

Results

Co-culture experiments revealed that MSCs-EVs could promote the expression of collagen type II alpha 1 chain (COL2A1), SRY-box transcription factor 9 (SOX9) and Aggrecan while negatively regulate the expression of chondrocyte hypertrophy markers matrix metallopeptidase 13 (MMP-13) and RUNX family transcription factor 2 (Runx2) in mouse chondrocytes in the OA model. Besides, the results of cell experiments indicated that MSCs-EVs could notably weaken the suppression of chondrocyte proliferation, migration and the promotion of chondrocyte apoptosis via interleukin1β (IL-1β) induction. In addition, MSCs-circHIPK3-EVs (EVs derived from MSCs overexpressing circHIPK3) considerably improved IL-1β-induced chondrocyte injury. Mechanistically, we elucidated that circHIPK3 could directly bind to miR-124-3p and subsequently elevate the expression of the target gene MYH9.

Conclusion

The findings in our study demonstrated that EVs-circHIPK3 participated in MSCs-EVs-mediated chondrocyte proliferation and migration induction and in chondrocyte apoptosis inhibition via the miR-124-3p/MYH9 axis. This offers a promising novel cell-free therapy for treating OA.

Graphic abstract

The Research Progress of Exosomes in Osteoarthritis, With Particular Emphasis on the Mediating Roles of miRNAs and lncRNAs

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a kind of degenerative disease, which is caused by many factors such as aging, obesity, strain, trauma, congenital joint abnormalities, joint deformities. Exosomes are mainly derived from the invagination of intracellular lysosomes, which are released into the extracellular matrix after fusion of the outer membrane of multi vesicles with the cell membrane. Exosomes mediate intercellular communication and regulate the biological activity of receptor cells by carrying non-coding RNA, long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), proteins and lipids. Evidences show that exosomes are involved in the pathogenesis of OA. In view of the important roles of exosomes in OA, this paper systematically reviewed the roles of exosomes in the pathogenesis of OA, including the roles of exosomes in OA diagnosis, the regulatory mechanisms of exosomes in the pathogenesis, and the intervention roles of exosomes in the treatment of OA. Reviewing the roles of exosomes in OA will help to clarify the pathogenesis of OA and explore new diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs): What we know of the mesmerizing roles of these tiny vesicles in hematological malignancies?

Cancer is a complex disease in which a bidirectional collaboration between malignant cells and surrounding microenvironment creates an appropriate platform which ultimately facilitates the progression of the disease. The discovery of extracellular vesicles (EVs) was a turning point in the modern era of cancer biology, as their importance in human malignancies has set the stage to widen research interest in the field of cell-to-cell communication. The implication in short- and long-distance interaction via horizontally transfer of cellular components, ranging from non-coding RNAs to functional proteins, as well as stimulating target cells receptors by the means of ligands anchored on their membrane endows these "tiny vesicles with giant impacts" with incredible potential to re-educate normal tissues, and thus, to re-shape the surrounding niche. In this review, we highlight the pathogenic roles of EVs in human cancers, with an extensive focus on the recent advances in hematological malignancies.